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Diagnostic Importance of Tears in Dog and Cat Practice: New Horizons as a Biomarker

Year 2025, Volume: 4 Issue: 1, 21 - 27, 30.06.2025

Said Cafer , M. Erman Or

Abstract

The discovery of biomarkers is very important for the early diagnosis and prevention of diseases in both human and veterinary medicine. Tears are a body fluid that protects the eye from external factors and contains certain proteins and metabolites in its structure. It contains certain components in the blood and therefore carries some markers of both ocular and certain systemic diseases. Since it is obtained by non-invasive means, it has a more advantageous position than other body fluids in terms of its potential as a biomarker. For this reason, it has attracted great interest in human medicine in recent years, and new studies have been carried out especially in the fields of Diabetes Mellitus, Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's Disease and even Covid-19. However, veterinary studies are quite limited compared to human medicine. It has great potential in terms of both practicality and cost. However, due to limited studies, more studies and data are needed before tears can be used in routine diagnostic studies in both human and veterinary medicine. In this review, the current use of tears as biomarkers, especially in human medicine, their position in veterinary medicine and their role in systemic diseases will be evaluated, and it is aimed to provide a new perspective on tears in veterinary practice.

Keywords

Tears Biomarker Diabetes Mellitus.

References

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  • Barabino, S., Chen, W., & Dana, M. R. (2004). Tear film and ocular surface tests in animal models of dry eye: uses and limitations. Experimental eye research, 79(5), 613–621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2004.07.002
  • Beckwith-Cohen, B., Elad, D., Bdolah-Abram, T., & Ofri, R. (2014). Comparison of tear pH in dogs, horses, and cattle. American journal of veterinary research, 75(5), 494–499. https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.75.5.494
  • Berger, S. L., & King, V. L. (1998). The fluctuation of tear production in the dog. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association, 34(1), 79–83. https://doi.org/10.5326/15473317-34-1-79
  • Broadwater, J. J., Colitz, C., Carastro, S., & Saville, W. (2010). Tear production in normal juvenile dogs. Veterinary ophthalmology, 13(5), 321–325. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-5224.2010.00820.x
  • Cantero, F., Ortillés, Á., Teresa Peña, M., & Leiva, M. (2023). Prevalence of ocular findings and their association with glycemia in dogs with diabetes mellitus: A 10-year clinical study (2009-2019). Open veterinary journal, 13(5), 620–628. https://doi.org/10.5455/OVJ.2023.v13.i5.15
  • Csősz, É., Boross, P., Csutak, A., Berta, A., Tóth, F., Póliska, S., Török, Z., & Tőzsér, J. (2012). Quantitative analysis of proteins in the tear fluid of patients with diabetic retinopathy. Journal of proteomics, 75(7), 2196–2204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jprot.2012.01.019
  • Davari, A., Tabandeh, M. R., Abarkar, M., & Torkaman, B. (2024). Tear cytokines as potential markers of inflammation in feline conjunctivitis. Veterinary ophthalmology, 10.1111/vop.13261. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/vop.13261
  • Davis, K., & Townsend, W. (2011). Tear-film osmolarity in normal cats and cats with conjunctivitis. Veterinary ophthalmology, 14 Suppl 1, 54–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-5224.2011.00916.x
  • de Freitas Campos, C., Cole, N., Van Dyk, D., Walsh, B. J., Diakos, P., Almeida, D., Torrecilhas, A., Laus, J. L., & Willcox, M. D. (2008). Proteomic analysis of dog tears for potential cancer markers. Research in veterinary science, 85(2), 349–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2007.11.006
  • Donat Almagro, L., Moutinho, I., Mendes de Oliveira, V., & Ferreira Gonçalves, G. (2024). Impact of stress on the tear production of healthy cats. Journal of feline medicine and surgery, 26(3), 1098612X241233116. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098612X241233116
  • Evans, V., Vockler, C., Friedlander, M., Walsh, B., & Willcox, M. D. (2001). Lacryglobin in human tears, a potential marker for cancer. Clinical & experimental ophthalmology, 29(3), 161–163. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1442-9071.2001.00408.x
  • Ghaffari, M. S., Malmasi, A., & Bokaie, S. (2010). Effect of acepromazine or xylazine on tear production as measured by Schirmer tear test in normal cats. Veterinary ophthalmology, 13(1), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-5224.2009.00738.x
  • Ghosh, S., Ghosh, S., Azharuddin, M., Bera, S., Datta, H., & Dasgupta, A. (2014). Change in tear protein profile in diabetic retinopathy with duration of diabetes. Diabetes & metabolic syndrome, 8(4), 233–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2014.09.019
  • Guedes, P. E. B., Veloso, J. F., Lacerda, L. C., Santana, J. O., Mora-Ocampo, I. Y., Pirovani, C. P., Cruz, R. D. S., Munhoz, A. D., & Carlos, R. S. A. (2021). Protein expression of the tear film of domestic cats before and after inoculation with Toxoplasma gondii. BMC veterinary research, 17(1), 386. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-021-03080-9
  • Hagan, S., Martin, E., & Enríquez-de-Salamanca, A. (2016). Tear fluid biomarkers in ocular and systemic disease: potential use for predictive, preventive and personalised medicine. The EPMA journal, 7(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13167-016-0065-3
  • Hartley, C., Williams, D. L., & Adams, V. J. (2006). Effect of age, gender, weight, and time of day on tear production in normal dogs. Veterinary ophthalmology, 9(1), 53–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-5224.2005.00437.x
  • Hasırcıoğlu, S., & Aslım, H. P. (2021). Detection of Canine Distemper Virus from Ocular Swab and Blood Samples in Dog by Real-Time RT-PCR Method. Kocatepe Veterinary Journal, 14(4), 415-421.
  • Herring, I. P., Pickett, J. P., Champagne, E. S., & Marini, M. (2000). Evaluation of aqueous tear production in dogs following general anesthesia. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association, 36(5), 427–430. https://doi.org/10.5326/15473317-36-5-427
  • Inubushi, S., Kawaguchi, H., Mizumoto, S., Kunihisa, T., Baba, M., Kitayama, Y., Takeuchi, T., Hoffman, R. M., Tanino, H., & Sasaki, R. (2020). Oncogenic miRNAs Identified in Tear Exosomes From Metastatic Breast Cancer Patients. Anticancer research, 40(6), 3091–3096. https://doi.org/10.21873/anticanres.14290
  • Kenny, A., Jiménez-Mateos, E. M., Zea-Sevilla, M. A., Rábano, A., Gili-Manzanaro, P., Prehn, J. H. M., Henshall, D. C., Ávila, J., Engel, T., & Hernández, F. (2019). Proteins and microRNAs are differentially expressed in tear fluid from patients with Alzheimer's disease. Scientific reports, 9(1), 15437. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-51837-y
  • Knight, L. N., & Ben-Shlomo, G. (2020). Electrolyte composition of tears in normal dogs and its comparison to serum and plasma. Experimental Eye Research, 201, 108265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2020.108265
  • Lebrecht, A., Boehm, D., Schmidt, M., Koelbl, H., & Grus, F. H. (2009). Surface-enhanced Laser Desorption/Ionisation Time-of-flight Mass Spectrometry to Detect Breast Cancer Markers in Tears and Serum. Cancer genomics & proteomics, 6(2), 75–83.
  • Madruga, G. M., Ribeiro, A. P., & Martins, L. R. (2023). Effect of 0.15% sodium hyaluronate on tear film breakup time in healthy anesthetized cats. Veterinary ophthalmology, 26(1), 46–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/vop.13030
  • Margadant, D. L., Kirkby, K., Andrew, S. E., & Gelatt, K. N. (2003). Effect of topical tropicamide on tear production as measured by Schirmer's tear test in normal dogs and cats. Veterinary ophthalmology, 6(4), 315–320. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-5224.2003.00313.x
  • Nandi, S. K., Singh, D., Upadhay, J., Gupta, N., Dhiman, N., Mittal, S. K., & Mahindroo, N. (2021). Identification of tear-based protein and non-protein biomarkers: Its application in diagnosis of human diseases using biosensors. International journal of biological macromolecules, 193(Pt A), 838–846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.10.198
  • Page, L., Allbaugh, R. A., Mochel, J. P., Peraza, J., Bertram, M., & Sebbag, L. (2020). Impact of diurnal variation, sex, tear collection method, and disease state on tear protein levels in dogs. Veterinary ophthalmology, 23(6), 994–1000. https://doi.org/10.1111/vop.12840
  • Peche, N., Köstlin, R., Reese, S., & Pieper, K. (2015). Postanaesthetic tear production and ocular irritation in cats. Tierarztliche Praxis. Ausgabe K, Kleintiere/Heimtiere, 43(2), 75–82. https://doi.org/10.15654/TPK-140182
  • Pieczyński, J., Szulc, U., Harazna, J., Szulc, A., & Kiewisz, J. (2021). Tear fluid collection methods: Review of current techniques. European journal of ophthalmology, 31(5), 2245–2251. https://doi.org/10.1177/1120672121998922
  • Proud, D., Sweet, J., Stein, P., Settipane, R. A., Kagey-Sobotka, A., Friedlaender, M. H., & Lichtenstein, L. M. (1990). Inflammatory mediator release on conjunctival provocation of allergic subjects with allergen. The Journal of allergy and clinical immunology, 85(5), 896–905. https://doi.org/10.1016/0091-6749(90)90075-f
  • Raposo, A. C., Portela, R. D., Aldrovani, M., Barral, T. D., Cury, D., & Oriá, A. P. (2020). Comparative Analysis of Tear Composition in Humans, Domestic Mammals, Reptiles, and Birds. Frontiers in veterinary science, 7, 283. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00283
  • Ritchoo, S., Havanapan, P. O., Phungthanom, N., Rucksaken, R., Muikaew, R., & Sussadee, M. (2022). Analysis and comparison of tear protein profiles in dogs using different tear collection methods. BMC veterinary research, 18(1), 442. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-022-03543-7
  • Sebbag, L., Allbaugh, R. A., Wehrman, R. F., Uhl, L. K., Ben-Shlomo, G., Chen, T., & Mochel, J. P. (2019). Fluorophotometric Assessment of Tear Volume and Turnover Rate in Healthy Dogs and Cats. Journal of ocular pharmacology and therapeutics : the official journal of the Association for Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 35(9), 497–502. https://doi.org/10.1089/jop.2019.0038
  • Sebbag, L., Harrington, D. M., & Mochel, J. P. (2018). Tear fluid collection in dogs and cats using ophthalmic sponges. Veterinary ophthalmology, 21(3), 249–254. https://doi.org/10.1111/vop.12502
  • Sebbag, L., Kass, P. H., & Maggs, D. J. (2015). Reference values, intertest correlations, and test-retest repeatability of selected tear film tests in healthy cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 246(4), 426–435. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.246.4.426
  • Sebbag, L., McDowell, E. M., Hepner, P. M., & Mochel, J. P. (2018). Effect of tear collection on lacrimal total protein content in dogs and cats: a comparison between Schirmer strips and ophthalmic sponges. BMC veterinary research, 14(1), 61. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-018-1390-7
  • Sebbag, L., Uhl, L. K., Schneider, B., Hayes, B., Olds, J., & Mochel, J. P. (2020). Investigation of Schirmer tear test-1 for measurement of tear production in cats in various environmental settings and with different test durations. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 256(6), 681–686. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.256.6.681
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  • Veloso, J. F., Brandão Guedes, P. E., Lacerda, L. C., Santana, J. O., Mora-Ocampo, I. Y., Pirovani, C. P., Oriá, A. P., Munhoz, A. D., & Alberto Carlos, R. S. (2021). Tear Film Proteome of Healthy Domestic Cats. Veterinary medicine international, 2021, 8708023. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8708023
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Kedi ve Köpek Pratiğinde Gözyaşının Tanısal Önemi: Biyobelirteç Olarak Yeni Ufuklar

Year 2025, Volume: 4 Issue: 1, 21 - 27, 30.06.2025

Said Cafer , M. Erman Or

Abstract

Biyobelirteçlerin keşfi hem beşeri hem de veteriner tıbbında hastalıkların erken teşhisi ve önlenmesi için oldukça önemlidir. Gözyaşı, gözü dış etkenlerden koruyan ve yapısında belirli proteinler ve metabolitler bulunduran bir vücut sıvısıdır. Kandaki belirli bileşenleri yapısında bulundurur ve bu sebeple hem oküler hem de belirli sistemik hastalıklardan bazı belirteçler taşır. İnvaziv olmayan yollarla elde edilmesi sebebiyle, bir biyobelirteç olma potansiyelinde diğer vücut sıvılarından daha avantajlı bir konumdadır. Bu sebepten dolayı özellikle beşeri tıpta son yıllarda büyük ilgi toplamıştır ve özellikle Diabetes Mellitus, Alzheimer Hastalığı, Parkinson Hastalığı ve hatta Covid-19 alanlarında yeni çalışmalara imza atılmıştır. Fakat veteriner çalışmaları, beşeri tıbba göre oldukça sınırlıdır. Hem pratiklik hem de maliyet bakımından büyük bir potansiyel barındırmaktadır. Fakat sınırlı çalışmalar sebebiyle gözyaşının hem beşeri hem de veteriner tıbbında rutin tanı çalışmalarında kullanılmaya başlanabilmesi için daha fazla çalışmaya ve veriye ihtiyaç vardır. Bu derlemede günümüzde özellikle beşeri tıpta gözyaşının birer biyobelirteç olarak kullanımının, veteriner tıbbındaki konumu ve sistemik hastalıklardaki rolleri değerlendirilecek olup veteriner pratiğinde gözyaşına yeni bir bakış açısı kazandırılması hedeflenmektedir.

Keywords

Gözyaşı Biyobelirteç Diabetes Mellitus.

References

  • Aupperle-Lellbach, H., Kehl, A., de Brot, S., & van der Weyden, L. (2024). Clinical Use of Molecular Biomarkers in Canine and Feline Oncology: Current and Future. Veterinary sciences, 11(5), 199. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci11050199
  • Barabino, S., Chen, W., & Dana, M. R. (2004). Tear film and ocular surface tests in animal models of dry eye: uses and limitations. Experimental eye research, 79(5), 613–621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2004.07.002
  • Beckwith-Cohen, B., Elad, D., Bdolah-Abram, T., & Ofri, R. (2014). Comparison of tear pH in dogs, horses, and cattle. American journal of veterinary research, 75(5), 494–499. https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.75.5.494
  • Berger, S. L., & King, V. L. (1998). The fluctuation of tear production in the dog. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association, 34(1), 79–83. https://doi.org/10.5326/15473317-34-1-79
  • Broadwater, J. J., Colitz, C., Carastro, S., & Saville, W. (2010). Tear production in normal juvenile dogs. Veterinary ophthalmology, 13(5), 321–325. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-5224.2010.00820.x
  • Cantero, F., Ortillés, Á., Teresa Peña, M., & Leiva, M. (2023). Prevalence of ocular findings and their association with glycemia in dogs with diabetes mellitus: A 10-year clinical study (2009-2019). Open veterinary journal, 13(5), 620–628. https://doi.org/10.5455/OVJ.2023.v13.i5.15
  • Csősz, É., Boross, P., Csutak, A., Berta, A., Tóth, F., Póliska, S., Török, Z., & Tőzsér, J. (2012). Quantitative analysis of proteins in the tear fluid of patients with diabetic retinopathy. Journal of proteomics, 75(7), 2196–2204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jprot.2012.01.019
  • Davari, A., Tabandeh, M. R., Abarkar, M., & Torkaman, B. (2024). Tear cytokines as potential markers of inflammation in feline conjunctivitis. Veterinary ophthalmology, 10.1111/vop.13261. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/vop.13261
  • Davis, K., & Townsend, W. (2011). Tear-film osmolarity in normal cats and cats with conjunctivitis. Veterinary ophthalmology, 14 Suppl 1, 54–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-5224.2011.00916.x
  • de Freitas Campos, C., Cole, N., Van Dyk, D., Walsh, B. J., Diakos, P., Almeida, D., Torrecilhas, A., Laus, J. L., & Willcox, M. D. (2008). Proteomic analysis of dog tears for potential cancer markers. Research in veterinary science, 85(2), 349–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2007.11.006
  • Donat Almagro, L., Moutinho, I., Mendes de Oliveira, V., & Ferreira Gonçalves, G. (2024). Impact of stress on the tear production of healthy cats. Journal of feline medicine and surgery, 26(3), 1098612X241233116. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098612X241233116
  • Evans, V., Vockler, C., Friedlander, M., Walsh, B., & Willcox, M. D. (2001). Lacryglobin in human tears, a potential marker for cancer. Clinical & experimental ophthalmology, 29(3), 161–163. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1442-9071.2001.00408.x
  • Ghaffari, M. S., Malmasi, A., & Bokaie, S. (2010). Effect of acepromazine or xylazine on tear production as measured by Schirmer tear test in normal cats. Veterinary ophthalmology, 13(1), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-5224.2009.00738.x
  • Ghosh, S., Ghosh, S., Azharuddin, M., Bera, S., Datta, H., & Dasgupta, A. (2014). Change in tear protein profile in diabetic retinopathy with duration of diabetes. Diabetes & metabolic syndrome, 8(4), 233–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2014.09.019
  • Guedes, P. E. B., Veloso, J. F., Lacerda, L. C., Santana, J. O., Mora-Ocampo, I. Y., Pirovani, C. P., Cruz, R. D. S., Munhoz, A. D., & Carlos, R. S. A. (2021). Protein expression of the tear film of domestic cats before and after inoculation with Toxoplasma gondii. BMC veterinary research, 17(1), 386. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-021-03080-9
  • Hagan, S., Martin, E., & Enríquez-de-Salamanca, A. (2016). Tear fluid biomarkers in ocular and systemic disease: potential use for predictive, preventive and personalised medicine. The EPMA journal, 7(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13167-016-0065-3
  • Hartley, C., Williams, D. L., & Adams, V. J. (2006). Effect of age, gender, weight, and time of day on tear production in normal dogs. Veterinary ophthalmology, 9(1), 53–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-5224.2005.00437.x
  • Hasırcıoğlu, S., & Aslım, H. P. (2021). Detection of Canine Distemper Virus from Ocular Swab and Blood Samples in Dog by Real-Time RT-PCR Method. Kocatepe Veterinary Journal, 14(4), 415-421.
  • Herring, I. P., Pickett, J. P., Champagne, E. S., & Marini, M. (2000). Evaluation of aqueous tear production in dogs following general anesthesia. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association, 36(5), 427–430. https://doi.org/10.5326/15473317-36-5-427
  • Inubushi, S., Kawaguchi, H., Mizumoto, S., Kunihisa, T., Baba, M., Kitayama, Y., Takeuchi, T., Hoffman, R. M., Tanino, H., & Sasaki, R. (2020). Oncogenic miRNAs Identified in Tear Exosomes From Metastatic Breast Cancer Patients. Anticancer research, 40(6), 3091–3096. https://doi.org/10.21873/anticanres.14290
  • Kenny, A., Jiménez-Mateos, E. M., Zea-Sevilla, M. A., Rábano, A., Gili-Manzanaro, P., Prehn, J. H. M., Henshall, D. C., Ávila, J., Engel, T., & Hernández, F. (2019). Proteins and microRNAs are differentially expressed in tear fluid from patients with Alzheimer's disease. Scientific reports, 9(1), 15437. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-51837-y
  • Knight, L. N., & Ben-Shlomo, G. (2020). Electrolyte composition of tears in normal dogs and its comparison to serum and plasma. Experimental Eye Research, 201, 108265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2020.108265
  • Lebrecht, A., Boehm, D., Schmidt, M., Koelbl, H., & Grus, F. H. (2009). Surface-enhanced Laser Desorption/Ionisation Time-of-flight Mass Spectrometry to Detect Breast Cancer Markers in Tears and Serum. Cancer genomics & proteomics, 6(2), 75–83.
  • Madruga, G. M., Ribeiro, A. P., & Martins, L. R. (2023). Effect of 0.15% sodium hyaluronate on tear film breakup time in healthy anesthetized cats. Veterinary ophthalmology, 26(1), 46–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/vop.13030
  • Margadant, D. L., Kirkby, K., Andrew, S. E., & Gelatt, K. N. (2003). Effect of topical tropicamide on tear production as measured by Schirmer's tear test in normal dogs and cats. Veterinary ophthalmology, 6(4), 315–320. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-5224.2003.00313.x
  • Nandi, S. K., Singh, D., Upadhay, J., Gupta, N., Dhiman, N., Mittal, S. K., & Mahindroo, N. (2021). Identification of tear-based protein and non-protein biomarkers: Its application in diagnosis of human diseases using biosensors. International journal of biological macromolecules, 193(Pt A), 838–846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.10.198
  • Page, L., Allbaugh, R. A., Mochel, J. P., Peraza, J., Bertram, M., & Sebbag, L. (2020). Impact of diurnal variation, sex, tear collection method, and disease state on tear protein levels in dogs. Veterinary ophthalmology, 23(6), 994–1000. https://doi.org/10.1111/vop.12840
  • Peche, N., Köstlin, R., Reese, S., & Pieper, K. (2015). Postanaesthetic tear production and ocular irritation in cats. Tierarztliche Praxis. Ausgabe K, Kleintiere/Heimtiere, 43(2), 75–82. https://doi.org/10.15654/TPK-140182
  • Pieczyński, J., Szulc, U., Harazna, J., Szulc, A., & Kiewisz, J. (2021). Tear fluid collection methods: Review of current techniques. European journal of ophthalmology, 31(5), 2245–2251. https://doi.org/10.1177/1120672121998922
  • Proud, D., Sweet, J., Stein, P., Settipane, R. A., Kagey-Sobotka, A., Friedlaender, M. H., & Lichtenstein, L. M. (1990). Inflammatory mediator release on conjunctival provocation of allergic subjects with allergen. The Journal of allergy and clinical immunology, 85(5), 896–905. https://doi.org/10.1016/0091-6749(90)90075-f
  • Raposo, A. C., Portela, R. D., Aldrovani, M., Barral, T. D., Cury, D., & Oriá, A. P. (2020). Comparative Analysis of Tear Composition in Humans, Domestic Mammals, Reptiles, and Birds. Frontiers in veterinary science, 7, 283. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00283
  • Ritchoo, S., Havanapan, P. O., Phungthanom, N., Rucksaken, R., Muikaew, R., & Sussadee, M. (2022). Analysis and comparison of tear protein profiles in dogs using different tear collection methods. BMC veterinary research, 18(1), 442. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-022-03543-7
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There are 46 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Diagnosis and Diagnostics
Journal Section Reviews
Authors

Said Cafer 0009-0002-4470-9890

M. Erman Or 0000-0002-8764-1956

Publication Date June 30, 2025
Submission Date April 10, 2025
Acceptance Date June 25, 2025
Published in Issue Year 2025 Volume: 4 Issue: 1

Cite

APA Cafer, S., & Or, M. E. (2025). Kedi ve Köpek Pratiğinde Gözyaşının Tanısal Önemi: Biyobelirteç Olarak Yeni Ufuklar. Antakya Veteriner Bilimleri Dergisi, 4(1), 21-27.