Abstract
Purpose: Linguistic proficiency can be defined as a multi-layered and dynamic process shaped by an individual's age, life experiences, and social environment. This proficiency encompasses not only vocabulary knowledge or basic grammatical skills but also includes syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic competencies. Syntactic complexity serves as a key indicator of this proficiency, reflecting how effectively and diversely individuals utilize various structural elements in their linguistic productions. In this context, the use of non-finite verb forms (i.e., verbals) is particularly prominent as a critical metric in assessing language development. Narrative samples are frequently employed in language assessments because they reflect an individual's language use in natural contexts and provide more functional outputs compared to formal evaluation tools.
Method: In this study, narratives produced by Turkish-speaking healthy young adults aged 18–30, with no known neurological or linguistic impairments, were analyzed through different narrative materials. Participants were asked to produce narratives based on three single-picture descriptions (Picnic, Cookie Theft, Accident) and one structured story-retelling task based on the book Frog, Where Are You? The collected data were transcribed and analyzed using the Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts – Turkish Version (SALT-TK). The microlinguistic variables examined included total number of utterances, usage of conjunctions and postpositions, production of verbals, sentence types, mean length of utterance (MLU), and type-token ratio (TTR).
Results: The findings revealed that the Frog, Where Are You? retelling task yielded significantly richer and more syntactically complex microlinguistic outputs compared to the other narrative types (p<0.01). Additionally, correlation analyses showed statistically significant relationships between the production of verbals and the frequency of conjunctions, postpositions, and various sentence types (p <0.05). Accordingly, narrative-based language assessment methods not only measure an individual's current linguistic abilities but also offer a functional framework for identifying potential areas for development. Given that different narrative types impose varying cognitive demands on individuals, the type of material used can directly influence levels of syntactic complexity. This highlights the close relationship between language production and both cognitive and contextual components.
Conclusion: Structured narrative tasks, in particular, are thought to activate higher-order cognitive processes such as establishing causal links between events, maintaining temporal sequencing, and developing character perspectives. Therefore, story-retelling tasks that rely on structured narratives can provide comprehensive insight not only into linguistic competencies but also into narrative coherence and cognitive organization. In conclusion, the use of verbals and other microlinguistic elements in the narratives of Turkish-speaking young adults serve as important indicators of linguistic maturity and development. Assessing these structures allows for a deeper understanding of age-related language development processes. Future research should aim to expand the sample size and incorporate both microsrtuctural and macrostructural language elements to build a more robust normative data pool.
References
- Acarlar, F., & Johnston, J. R. (2011). Acquisition of Turkish grammatical morphology by children with developmental disorders. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 46(6), 728–738. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-6984.2011.00035.x
- Açıkalın, İ. (1991). Türk Gençlerinin Yaşıtları Arasında Kullandıkları Konuşma Biçimleri. Dilbilim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2, 75-78.
- Aksu-Koç, A., & Nicolopoulou, A. (2015). Character reference in young children's narratives: A crosslinguistic comparison of English, Greek, and Turkish. Lingua, 155, 62-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2014.04.006 Aktan-Erciyes, A. (2019). İkinci dil ediniminin okul öncesi ve okul çağı çocuklarında anlatı becerilerinin kurgusal ve dilbilgisel süreçlerine olan etkisi. Psikoloji Çalışmaları / Studies in Psychology, 369-399. https://doi.org/10.26650/sp2019-0023
- Albert, M. L., Spiro, A., 3rd, Sayers, K. J., Cohen, J. A., Brady, C. B., Goral, M., & Obler, L. K. (2009). Effects of health status on word finding in aging. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 57(12), 2300–2305. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2009.02559.x
- Beeke, S., Wilkinson, R., & Maxim, J. (2003). Exploring aphasic grammar 2: do language testing and conversation tell a similar story? Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 17(2), 109–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/0269920031000061786
- Berman, R. A. (1995). Narrative competence and storytelling performance: How children tell stories in different contexts. Journal of narrative and life history, 5(4), 285-313. https://doi.org/10.1075/jnlh.5.4.01nar Bishop, D. V., & Adams, C. (1990). A prospective study of the relationship between specific language impairment, phonological disorders and reading retardation. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines, 31(7), 1027–1050. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1990.tb00844.x
- Boucher, J., Brisebois, A., Slegers, A., Courson, M., Désilets-Barnabé, M., Chouinard, A. M., Gbeglo, V., Marcotte, K., & Brambati, S. M. (2022). Picture Description of the Western Aphasia Battery Picnic Scene: Reference Data for the French Canadian Population. American journal of speech-language pathology, 31(1), 257–270. https://doi.org/10.1044/2021_AJSLP-20-00388
- Brownell, H. H. (1988). The neuropsychology of narrative comprehension. Aphasiology, 2(3-4), 247-250. https://doi.org/10.1080/02687038808248918
- Ching, T. Y. C., Cupples, L., Leigh, G., Hou, S., & Wong, A. (2021). Predicting Quality of Life and Behavior and Emotion from Functional Auditory and Pragmatic Language Abilities in 9-Year-Old Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 10(22), 5357. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10225357
- Çapan, S. (1996). Bilişsel Gelişim ve Dil Edinimi. Dilbilim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 7, 284-287.
- Demirhan, D. (2023). Genç Yetişkinlerde Anlatı Mikroyapısal Özelliklerinin İncelenmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul Atlas Üniversitesi Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü, Dil ve Konuşma Terapisi Anabilim Dalı, İstanbul.
- Doğan, N. (2014). Çok işlevlilik açısından Türkçe edatların söz dizimsel ve anlam bilimsel yapısı. Dil Araştırmaları, 15(15), 105-119.
- Drummond, C., Coutinho, G., Fonseca, R. P., Assunção, N., Teldeschi, A., de Oliveira-Souza, R., ... & Mattos, P. (2015). Deficits in narrative discourse elicited by visual stimuli are already present in patients with mild cognitive impairment. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 7, 96. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2015.00096
- Eyi, E. (2022). Türkçede fiilimsiler ile bağlanan birleşik yapılı cümleler üzerine. Anadolu Akademi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 4(1), 66–75.
- Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
- Fergadiotis, G., & Wright, H. H. (2011). Lexical diversity for adults with and without aphasia across discourse elicitation tasks. Aphasiology, 25(11), 1414–1430. https://doi.org/10.1080/02687038.2011.603898
- Hayward, D. V., Gillam, R. B., & Lien, P. (2007). Retelling a script-based story: Do children with and without language impairments focus on script and story elements? American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 16(3), 235-245. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2007/028
- Hsu, C. J., & Thompson, C. K. (2018). Manual Versus Automated Narrative Analysis of Agrammatic Production Patterns: The Northwestern Narrative Language Analysis and Computerized Language Analysis. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 61(2), 373–385. https://doi.org/10.1044/2017_JSLHR-L-17-0185
- Huang, A. J. R., Siyambalapitiya, S., & Cornwell, P. (2019). Speech pathologists and professional interpreters managing culturally and linguistically diverse adults with communication disorders: a systematic review. International Journal af Language and Communication Disorders, 54(5), 689–704. https://doi.org/10.1111/1460-6984.12475
- Işıtan, S., & Turan, F. (2014). Çocuklarda dil gelişiminin değerlendirilmesinde bir anlatı analizi yaklaşımı olarak öykü anlatımı. Eğitim Bilimleri ve Uygulama, 13(25), 105-124.
- Işıtan, S. & Doğan, Ö. (2015). An examination of 1st, 2nd and 3rd grade elementary school students’ story-telling skills based on narrative analysis. Ted Eği̇ti̇m ve Bi̇li̇m, 40(177). https://doi.org/10.15390/eb.2015.2167
- Kaderavek, J. N., & Sulzby, E. (2000). Narrative production by children with and without specific language impairment: Oral narratives and emergent readings. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43(1), 34-49. https://doi.org/10.1044/jslhr.4301.34
- Küntay, A., & Slobin, D. I. (2002). Putting interaction back into child language: Examples from Turkish. Psychology of Language and Communication, 6(1), 5-14.
- Mackenzie, C., Brady, M., Norrie, J., & Poedjianto, N. (2007). Picture description in neurologically normal adults: Concepts and topic coherence. Aphasiology, 21(3-4), 340-354. https://doi.org/10.1080/02687030600911419
- Madlener, K., Skoruppa, K., & Behrens, H. (2017). Gradual development of constructional complexity in German spatial language. Cognitive Linguistics, 28(4), 757-798. https://doi.org/10.1515/cog-2016-0089
- Marini, A., Boewe, A., Caltagirone, C., & Carlomagno, S. (2005). Age-related differences in the production of textual descriptions. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 34(5), 439-463. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-005-6203-z
- Merritt, D. D., & Liles, B. Z. (1989). Narrative analysis: clinical applications of story generation and story retelling. The Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 54(3), 438–447. https://doi.org/10.1044/jshd.5403.438 Nippold, M. A., Hesketh, L. J., Duthie, J. K., & Mansfield, T. C. (2005). Conversational versus expository discourse: a study of syntactic development in children, adolescents, and adults. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research: JSLHR, 48(5), 1048–1064. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2005/073)
- Nippold, M. A., Mansfield, T. C., & Billow, J. L. (2007). Peer conflict explanations in children, adolescents, and adults: examining the development of complex syntax. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 16(2), 179–188. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2007/022)
- Nippold M. A. (2009). School-age children talk about chess: does knowledge drive syntactic complexity?. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research: JSLHR, 52(4), 856–871. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2009/08-0094)
- Nippold, M. A., Cramond, P. M., & Hayward-Mayhew, C. (2014). Spoken language production in adults: examining age-related differences in syntactic complexity. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 28(3), 195–207. https://doi.org/10.3109/02699206.2013.841292
- Nippold, M. A., Frantz-Kaspar, M. W., & Vigeland, L. M. (2017). Spoken Language Production in Young Adults: Examining Syntactic Complexity. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research: JSLHR, 60(5), 1339–1347. https://doi.org/10.1044/2016_JSLHR-L-16-0124
- Ögel-Balaban, H., & Aksu-Koç, A. (2020). Clause chaining and discourse continuity in Turkish children's narratives. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 115. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00115
- Rentzsch, J. (2016). Dil Öğrenimi Açısından Adeylemler ve Ortaçlar. Türkbilig, (31), 57-78. Schleppegrell, M. J. (1992). Subordination and linguistic complexity. Discourse Processes, 15(1), 117-131. https://doi.org/10.1080/01638539209544804
- Themistocleous, C., Eckerström, M., & Kokkinakis, D. (2020). Voice quality and speech fluency distinguish individuals with Mild Cognitive Impairment from Healthy Controls. PloS One, 15(7), e0236009. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236009
- Toğram, B., & Maviş, I. (2012). Validity, reliability and standardization study of the language assessment test for aphasia. Turkish Journal of Neurology, 18(3), 96-103. https://doi.org/10.4274/Tnd.16779
- Westby, C. (2005). Assessing and facilitating text comprehension problems. In H. Catts ve A. Kamhi (Eds.), Language and Reading Disabilities (pp. 157–232). Boston, MA: Allyn ve Bacon.
- Yavuz, S. (2011). Türkiye Türkçesi ağızlarında bağlaçlar. Diyalektolog-Ağız Araştırmaları Dergisi, (3), 59-107. Yu, G. (2010). Lexical diversity in writing and speaking task performances. Applied Linguistics, 31(2), 236-259. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amp024
Abstract
Amaç: Dilsel yeterlilik, bireyin yaşı, deneyimi ve sosyal çevresiyle şekillenen karmaşık bir üretim sürecidir. Sözdizimsel karmaşıklığın önemli göstergelerinden biri olan eylemsi üretimi, dil gelişiminin değerlendirilmesinde sıklıkla kullanılmaktadır. Anlatı örnekleri ise bireyin doğal bağlamdaki dilsel yeterliliğini çok yönlü biçimde yansıtabilen etkili araçlardır. Bu çalışmanın amacı, 18-30 yaş arası Türkçe konuşan sağlıklı genç yetişkinlerin ürettikleri anlatılarda mikro yapısal dil özelliklerini karşılaştırarak, sözdizimsel karmaşıklığın ortaya çıkmasına en elverişli anlatı aracını belirlemektir.
Yöntem: Katılımcılardan üç farklı tek resim (Piknik, Kurabiye Hırsızı, Kaza) ve bir birleşik öyküleme materyali (“Kurbağa, Neredesin?”) aracılığıyla anlatı örnekleri toplanmıştır. Anlatılar, Dil Transkriptlerinin Sistematik Analizi (SALT-TK) yazılımı ile transkribe edilerek toplam sözce sayısı, bağlaç, edat, eylemsi, cümle türleri, ortalama sözce uzunluğu (OSU) ve tip tür oranı (TTO) gibi mikroyapısal değişkenler açısından analiz edilmiştir.
Bulgular: “Kurbağa, Neredesin?” adlı birleşik anlatı, mikroyapısal parametrelerde diğer anlatı türlerine kıyasla daha zengin çıktılar sunmuştur (p<0,01). Ayrıca korelasyon analizlerinde, eylemsi üretimi ile bağlaç, edat ve diğer cümle türleri arasında anlamlı ilişkiler saptanmıştır (p<0,05).
Sonuç: Elde edilen bulgular, yeniden anlatım yöntemiyle elde edilen anlatıların sözdizimsel açıdan daha karmaşık çıktılar sunduğunu göstermektedir. Türkçe konuşan genç yetişkinlerde eylemsi üretimi ve diğer mikro yapılar, dil gelişiminin önemli göstergeleri olarak öne çıkmaktadır. Bu yapılar, bireyin dilsel olgunluk düzeyinin değerlendirilmesinde de kullanılabilir. İleri çalışmalarda katılımcı sayısı artırılarak daha geniş normatif veriler oluşturulması ve makroyapısal dil özelliklerinin de mikroyapılarla birlikte değerlendirilmesi önerilmektedir.
References
- Acarlar, F., & Johnston, J. R. (2011). Acquisition of Turkish grammatical morphology by children with developmental disorders. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 46(6), 728–738. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-6984.2011.00035.x
- Açıkalın, İ. (1991). Türk Gençlerinin Yaşıtları Arasında Kullandıkları Konuşma Biçimleri. Dilbilim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2, 75-78.
- Aksu-Koç, A., & Nicolopoulou, A. (2015). Character reference in young children's narratives: A crosslinguistic comparison of English, Greek, and Turkish. Lingua, 155, 62-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2014.04.006 Aktan-Erciyes, A. (2019). İkinci dil ediniminin okul öncesi ve okul çağı çocuklarında anlatı becerilerinin kurgusal ve dilbilgisel süreçlerine olan etkisi. Psikoloji Çalışmaları / Studies in Psychology, 369-399. https://doi.org/10.26650/sp2019-0023
- Albert, M. L., Spiro, A., 3rd, Sayers, K. J., Cohen, J. A., Brady, C. B., Goral, M., & Obler, L. K. (2009). Effects of health status on word finding in aging. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 57(12), 2300–2305. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2009.02559.x
- Beeke, S., Wilkinson, R., & Maxim, J. (2003). Exploring aphasic grammar 2: do language testing and conversation tell a similar story? Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 17(2), 109–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/0269920031000061786
- Berman, R. A. (1995). Narrative competence and storytelling performance: How children tell stories in different contexts. Journal of narrative and life history, 5(4), 285-313. https://doi.org/10.1075/jnlh.5.4.01nar Bishop, D. V., & Adams, C. (1990). A prospective study of the relationship between specific language impairment, phonological disorders and reading retardation. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines, 31(7), 1027–1050. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1990.tb00844.x
- Boucher, J., Brisebois, A., Slegers, A., Courson, M., Désilets-Barnabé, M., Chouinard, A. M., Gbeglo, V., Marcotte, K., & Brambati, S. M. (2022). Picture Description of the Western Aphasia Battery Picnic Scene: Reference Data for the French Canadian Population. American journal of speech-language pathology, 31(1), 257–270. https://doi.org/10.1044/2021_AJSLP-20-00388
- Brownell, H. H. (1988). The neuropsychology of narrative comprehension. Aphasiology, 2(3-4), 247-250. https://doi.org/10.1080/02687038808248918
- Ching, T. Y. C., Cupples, L., Leigh, G., Hou, S., & Wong, A. (2021). Predicting Quality of Life and Behavior and Emotion from Functional Auditory and Pragmatic Language Abilities in 9-Year-Old Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 10(22), 5357. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10225357
- Çapan, S. (1996). Bilişsel Gelişim ve Dil Edinimi. Dilbilim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 7, 284-287.
- Demirhan, D. (2023). Genç Yetişkinlerde Anlatı Mikroyapısal Özelliklerinin İncelenmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul Atlas Üniversitesi Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü, Dil ve Konuşma Terapisi Anabilim Dalı, İstanbul.
- Doğan, N. (2014). Çok işlevlilik açısından Türkçe edatların söz dizimsel ve anlam bilimsel yapısı. Dil Araştırmaları, 15(15), 105-119.
- Drummond, C., Coutinho, G., Fonseca, R. P., Assunção, N., Teldeschi, A., de Oliveira-Souza, R., ... & Mattos, P. (2015). Deficits in narrative discourse elicited by visual stimuli are already present in patients with mild cognitive impairment. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 7, 96. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2015.00096
- Eyi, E. (2022). Türkçede fiilimsiler ile bağlanan birleşik yapılı cümleler üzerine. Anadolu Akademi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 4(1), 66–75.
- Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
- Fergadiotis, G., & Wright, H. H. (2011). Lexical diversity for adults with and without aphasia across discourse elicitation tasks. Aphasiology, 25(11), 1414–1430. https://doi.org/10.1080/02687038.2011.603898
- Hayward, D. V., Gillam, R. B., & Lien, P. (2007). Retelling a script-based story: Do children with and without language impairments focus on script and story elements? American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 16(3), 235-245. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2007/028
- Hsu, C. J., & Thompson, C. K. (2018). Manual Versus Automated Narrative Analysis of Agrammatic Production Patterns: The Northwestern Narrative Language Analysis and Computerized Language Analysis. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 61(2), 373–385. https://doi.org/10.1044/2017_JSLHR-L-17-0185
- Huang, A. J. R., Siyambalapitiya, S., & Cornwell, P. (2019). Speech pathologists and professional interpreters managing culturally and linguistically diverse adults with communication disorders: a systematic review. International Journal af Language and Communication Disorders, 54(5), 689–704. https://doi.org/10.1111/1460-6984.12475
- Işıtan, S., & Turan, F. (2014). Çocuklarda dil gelişiminin değerlendirilmesinde bir anlatı analizi yaklaşımı olarak öykü anlatımı. Eğitim Bilimleri ve Uygulama, 13(25), 105-124.
- Işıtan, S. & Doğan, Ö. (2015). An examination of 1st, 2nd and 3rd grade elementary school students’ story-telling skills based on narrative analysis. Ted Eği̇ti̇m ve Bi̇li̇m, 40(177). https://doi.org/10.15390/eb.2015.2167
- Kaderavek, J. N., & Sulzby, E. (2000). Narrative production by children with and without specific language impairment: Oral narratives and emergent readings. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43(1), 34-49. https://doi.org/10.1044/jslhr.4301.34
- Küntay, A., & Slobin, D. I. (2002). Putting interaction back into child language: Examples from Turkish. Psychology of Language and Communication, 6(1), 5-14.
- Mackenzie, C., Brady, M., Norrie, J., & Poedjianto, N. (2007). Picture description in neurologically normal adults: Concepts and topic coherence. Aphasiology, 21(3-4), 340-354. https://doi.org/10.1080/02687030600911419
- Madlener, K., Skoruppa, K., & Behrens, H. (2017). Gradual development of constructional complexity in German spatial language. Cognitive Linguistics, 28(4), 757-798. https://doi.org/10.1515/cog-2016-0089
- Marini, A., Boewe, A., Caltagirone, C., & Carlomagno, S. (2005). Age-related differences in the production of textual descriptions. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 34(5), 439-463. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-005-6203-z
- Merritt, D. D., & Liles, B. Z. (1989). Narrative analysis: clinical applications of story generation and story retelling. The Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 54(3), 438–447. https://doi.org/10.1044/jshd.5403.438 Nippold, M. A., Hesketh, L. J., Duthie, J. K., & Mansfield, T. C. (2005). Conversational versus expository discourse: a study of syntactic development in children, adolescents, and adults. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research: JSLHR, 48(5), 1048–1064. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2005/073)
- Nippold, M. A., Mansfield, T. C., & Billow, J. L. (2007). Peer conflict explanations in children, adolescents, and adults: examining the development of complex syntax. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 16(2), 179–188. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2007/022)
- Nippold M. A. (2009). School-age children talk about chess: does knowledge drive syntactic complexity?. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research: JSLHR, 52(4), 856–871. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2009/08-0094)
- Nippold, M. A., Cramond, P. M., & Hayward-Mayhew, C. (2014). Spoken language production in adults: examining age-related differences in syntactic complexity. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 28(3), 195–207. https://doi.org/10.3109/02699206.2013.841292
- Nippold, M. A., Frantz-Kaspar, M. W., & Vigeland, L. M. (2017). Spoken Language Production in Young Adults: Examining Syntactic Complexity. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research: JSLHR, 60(5), 1339–1347. https://doi.org/10.1044/2016_JSLHR-L-16-0124
- Ögel-Balaban, H., & Aksu-Koç, A. (2020). Clause chaining and discourse continuity in Turkish children's narratives. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 115. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00115
- Rentzsch, J. (2016). Dil Öğrenimi Açısından Adeylemler ve Ortaçlar. Türkbilig, (31), 57-78. Schleppegrell, M. J. (1992). Subordination and linguistic complexity. Discourse Processes, 15(1), 117-131. https://doi.org/10.1080/01638539209544804
- Themistocleous, C., Eckerström, M., & Kokkinakis, D. (2020). Voice quality and speech fluency distinguish individuals with Mild Cognitive Impairment from Healthy Controls. PloS One, 15(7), e0236009. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236009
- Toğram, B., & Maviş, I. (2012). Validity, reliability and standardization study of the language assessment test for aphasia. Turkish Journal of Neurology, 18(3), 96-103. https://doi.org/10.4274/Tnd.16779
- Westby, C. (2005). Assessing and facilitating text comprehension problems. In H. Catts ve A. Kamhi (Eds.), Language and Reading Disabilities (pp. 157–232). Boston, MA: Allyn ve Bacon.
- Yavuz, S. (2011). Türkiye Türkçesi ağızlarında bağlaçlar. Diyalektolog-Ağız Araştırmaları Dergisi, (3), 59-107. Yu, G. (2010). Lexical diversity in writing and speaking task performances. Applied Linguistics, 31(2), 236-259. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amp024
Details
| Primary Language | Turkish |
|---|---|
| Subjects | Speech Pathology |
| Journal Section | Research Article |
| Authors | |
| Publication Date | April 30, 2025 |
| Submission Date | September 25, 2024 |
| Acceptance Date | April 25, 2025 |
| Published in Issue | Year 2025 Volume: 8 Issue: 1 |
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