Journal of General Turkish History Research

Abstract

In the mid-13th century, following the conquests carried out by Mongol armies under the command of Batu and Subutai, the Golden Horde, one of the largest political entities of the Middle Ages, was established. This state ruled over a vast territory stretching from the Irtysh River to the Dniester and Danube rivers. The governance of the newly established state and the effective control of its expansive territories necessitated the development of pre-Mongol settlement centers and the construction of new cities. The Mongol leaders realized that the lands of the Golden Horde had great potential not only for nomadic life but also for trade and a sedentary lifestyle. Accordingly, urbanization accelerated during the Golden Horde period with the support of the khans; settlements damaged during conquests were rebuilt, and new cities were established in both the steppes and settled regions. By the late 13th century, the center of the Golden Horde had shifted to the Lower Volga region, marking the beginning of an intensive urbanization process in the steppe areas.
This article examines the various categories of architectural structures in the Golden Horde. Buildings such as mosques, minarets, mausoleums, baths, and mansions reflect the urban culture of the Golden Horde and the influence of diverse traditions. Mosques and minarets influenced by Anatolian Seljuk architecture shaped the region’s religious structures, while mausoleums represent outstanding examples of monumental architecture. Baths and mansions, on the other hand, stand out as elements of civil architecture that combine functionality and aesthetics. Baths are notable for their underground construction, plain exteriors, and richly decorated interiors, while mansions reflect social status through central structures and auxiliary buildings, serving as a spatial representation of the Golden Horde’s social order. Despite the presence of diverse construction traditions and innovative designs, the planning principles of buildings throughout the Golden Horde were built on a common foundation. This consistency indicates the development of a unified architectural style, even though eclectic features were evident in the details.
It is known that the Mongols utilized the centuries-old experience of the conquered peoples and employed forced labor when building their cities. The new cities were constructed with the labor of craftsmen brought from Khwarezm, the Caucasus, Crimea, the Volga region, and Russian principalities. The cities in different regions of the Golden Horde varied in terms of construction materials and architectural techniques. In the steppe regions, construction was carried out using mudbrick and fired brick, similar to the Central Asian tradition. For decoration, glazed tiles, glazed majolica, mosaics, and carved figurative bricks were widely used. In the Dniester basin, Crimea, and the lands of the Volga Bulgars, monumental structures were built using a technique that combined stone and brick, with architectural decoration largely based on stonework. In the North Caucasus, mixed construction techniques were applied. On a general scale, it can be said that the cities of the Golden Horde bore the distinctive characteristics of Eastern architecture under the influence of Islam, reflecting the architectural traditions of Muslim countries and forming a unique urban appearance.