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Post-Earthquake Forensic Examination of Two Unreinforced Masonry Buildings via Discontinuum-Based Analysis

Year 2025, Volume: 36 Issue: 5

Andrei Farcasiu , Peter Griesbach , Rhea Wilson , Sinan Acikgoz , Bora Pulatsu

https://doi.org/10.18400/tjce.1565654

Abstract

Post-earthquake investigations show that unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings may exhibit diverse failure mechanisms depending on the construction morphology and the connection detailing between their structural components. Advanced computational models are necessary to consider the influence of these aspects. However, realistically reproducing the post-collapse state of an existing URM building is challenging when limited data is available on the aforementioned features. To address this challenge, a framework for exploring the seismic behavior of URM buildings is presented. The current investigation presents two case study buildings located in Türkiye's Hatay province: the Mithatpaşa Primary School in Iskenderun and the Liwan Boutique Hotel in Antakya, both of which suffered partial collapses during the recent Kahramanmaraş Earthquakes in 2023. Discrete block models of the two case study buildings are generated based on geometrical information obtained from various pre- and post-collapse vision-based data sources. An automatic block generation algorithm is proposed to replicate periodic and nonperiodic masonry wall patterns. Next, the generated discrete block media are analyzed using discontinuum-based structural analysis to predict the seismic response of the structures. Comparisons between the preliminary pushover analysis results and collapse observations inform further analyses, and lead to an exploration of how construction morphology and connection detailing may have contributed to the partial collapse of the buildings. It is demonstrated that this iterative approach, supported by forensic site evidence and reverse engineering analysis, provides new insight into the influence of key factors that contribute to collapse. This information can help safeguard similar structures and inform the development of effective retrofitting solutions.

Keywords

Masonry computational modeling structural analysis discrete element method collapse mechanism forensic engineering

References

  • Roca P, Cervera M, Gariup G, Pelà L (2010) Structural analysis of masonry historical constructions. Classical and advanced approaches. Arch Comput Methods Eng 17:299–325. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11831-010-9046-1
  • Lourenço PB, Rots JG, Blaauwendraad J (1998) Continuum model for masonry: Parameter estimation and validation. J Struct Eng 124:642–652. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1998)124:6(642)
  • Funari MF, Spadea S, Lonetti P, et al (2020) Visual programming for structural assessment of out-of-plane mechanisms in historic masonry structures. J Build Eng 31:101425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101425
  • Funari MF, Hajjat AE, Masciotta MG, et al (2021) A parametric scan-to-FEM framework for the digital twin generation of historic masonry structures. Sustain 13:11088. https://doi.org/10.3390/su131911088
  • Saloustros S, Pelà L, Contrafatto FR, et al (2019) Analytical Derivation of Seismic Fragility Curves for Historical Masonry Structures Based on Stochastic Analysis of Uncertain Material Parameters. Int J Archit Herit 13:1142–1164. https://doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2019.1638992
  • Lourenço PB, Rots JG (1997) Multisurface interface model for analysis of masonry structures. J Eng Mech 123:660–668
  • Foti D, Vacca V, Facchini I (2018) DEM modeling and experimental analysis of the static behavior of a dry-joints masonry cross vaults. Constr Build Mater 170:111–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.02.202
  • Pulatsu B, Erdogmus E, Lourenço PB, et al (2020) Discontinuum analysis of the fracture mechanism in masonry prisms and wallettes via discrete element method. Meccanica 55:505–523. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11012-020-01133-1
  • Gonen S, Pulatsu B, Erdogmus E, et al (2021) Quasi-static nonlinear seismic assessment of a fourth century A.D. Roman Aqueduct in Istanbul, Turkey. Heritage 4:401–421. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4010025 https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures7030031
  • Pulatsu B, Tuncay K (2024) Computational Modeling of Damage Progression in Unreinforced Masonry Walls via DEM. Turkish J Civ Eng 35:. https://doi.org/10.18400/tjce.1323977
  • Malomo D, Pulatsu B (2024) Discontinuum models for the structural and seismic assessment of unreinforced masonry structures: a critical appraisal. Structures 62:106108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2024.106108
  • Griesbach P, Wilson R, Karakus B, Pulatsu B (2023) Transferring vision-based data to discontinuum analysis for the assessment of URM walls. Eur J Environ Civ Eng 0:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2023.2254376
  • Loverdos D, Sarhosis V (2024) Pixel-level block classification and crack detection from 3D reconstruction models of masonry structures using convolutional neural networks. Eng Struct 310:118113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2024.118113
  • Milani G, Esquivel YW, Lourenço PB, et al (2013) Characterization of the response of quasi-periodic masonry: Geometrical investigation, homogenization and application to the Guimarães castle, Portugal. Eng Struct 56:621–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2013.05.040
  • Loverdos D, Sarhosis V (2023) Image2DEM: A geometrical digital twin generator for the detailed structural analysis of existing masonry infrastructure stock. SoftwareX 22:101323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.softx.2023.101323
  • Garbioglu Ö (2017) Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’e Hatay’daki Kamu Yapilari. Mimar Sinan Güzel Sanatlar Üniversitesi
  • Cundall PA (1971) A computer model for simulating progressive, large-scale movements in blocky rock systems. In: The International Symposium on Rock Mechanics. Nancy, pp 47–65
  • Cundall PA (1988) Formulation of a Three-dimensional Disctinct Element Model - Part I. A Scheme to Detect and Represent Contacts in a System Composed of Many Polyhedral Blocks. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech 25:107–116
  • Hart R, Cundall PA, Lemos J V. (1988) Formulation of a three-dimensional distinct element model - Part II. Mechanical calculations for Motion and Interaction of a System Composed of Many Polyhedral Blocks. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech 25:117–125
  • Pulatsu B, Erdogmus E, Lourenço PB, et al (2020) Simulation of the in-plane structural behavior of unreinforced masonry walls and buildings using DEM. Structures 27:2274–2287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2020.08.026
  • Pulatsu B (2023) Coupled elasto-softening contact models in DEM to predict the in-plane response of masonry walls. Comput Part Mech 10:1759–1770. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40571-023-00586-x
  • Itasca Consulting Group Inc. (2013) 3DEC Three Dimensional Distinct Element Code
  • Cundall PA, C. D (2017) Dynamic relaxation applied to continuum and discontinuum numerical models in geomechanics, 1st Editio. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
  • Pirchio D, Walsh KQ, Kerr E, et al (2021) Integrated framework to structurally model unreinforced masonry Italian medieval churches from photogrammetry to finite element model analysis through heritage building information modeling. Eng Struct 241:112439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2021.112439
  • Crespi P, Franchi A, Ronca P, et al (2015) From BIM to FEM: the analysis of an historical masonry building. Build Inf Model Des Constr Oper 1:581–592. https://doi.org/10.2495/bim150471
  • Milani G, Esquivel YW, Lourenço PB, et al (2013) Characterization of the response of quasi-periodic masonry: Geometrical investigation, homogenization and application to the Guimarães castle, Portugal. Eng Struct 56:621–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2013.05.040
  • Loverdos D, Sarhosis V, Adamopoulos E, Drougkas A (2021) An innovative image processing-based framework for the numerical modeling of cracked masonry structures. Autom Constr 125:103633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2021.103633
  • Bozyigit B, Ozdemir A, Donmez K, et al (2024) Damage to monumental masonry buildings in Hatay and Osmaniye following the 2023 Turkey earthquake sequence: The role of wall geometry, construction quality, and material properties. Earthq Spectra. https://doi.org/10.1177/87552930241247031
  • Mijic N, Sestic M, Koljancic M (2017) CAD—GIS BIM Integration—Case Study of Banja Luka City Center. In: Hadzikadic M, Avdakovic S (eds) Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 3. Spring International Publishing, pp 267–281
  • Ferrante A, Loverdos D, Clementi F, et al (2021) Discontinuous approaches for nonlinear dynamic analyses of an ancient masonry tower. Eng Struct 230:111626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.111626
  • Mishra M, Lourenço PB (2024) Artificial intelligence-assisted visual inspection for cultural heritage: State-of-the-art review. J Cult Herit 66:536–550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2024.01.005
  • Borri A, Corradi M, De Maria A (2020) The Failure of Masonry Walls by Disaggregation and the Masonry Quality Index. Heritage 3:1162–1198. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage3040065
  • Borri A, Corradi M, Castori G (2015) A method for the analysis and classification of historic masonry. Bull Earthq Eng 2647–2665. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-015-9731-4
  • Wilson R, Pouragha M, Acikgoz S, Pulatsu, B (2025) A DEM-based computational modelling framework to investigate fracture processes in clay brick and masonry composite. Computational Particle Mechanics. (Accepted)
  • Erdogmus E, Pulatsu B, Gaggioli A, Hoff M (2021) Reverse Engineering a Fully Collapsed Ancient Roman Temple through Geoarchaeology and DEM. Int J Archit Herit 15:1795–1815. https://doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2020.1728593
  • Alexakis H, Makris N (2017) Hinging Mechanisms of Masonry Single-Nave Barrel Vaults Subjected to Lateral and Gravity Loads. J Struct Eng 143:4017026. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)st.1943-541x.0001762
  • Lourenço PB, Gaetani A (2022) Recommended properties for advanced numerical analysis. In: Finite Element Analysis for Building Assessment. Routledge, New York, pp 209–320

Post-Earthquake Forensic Examination of Two Unreinforced Masonry Buildings via Discontinuum-Based Analysis

Year 2025, Volume: 36 Issue: 5

Andrei Farcasiu , Peter Griesbach , Rhea Wilson , Sinan Acikgoz , Bora Pulatsu

https://doi.org/10.18400/tjce.1565654

Abstract

Post-earthquake investigations show that unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings may exhibit diverse failure mechanisms depending on the construction morphology and the connection detailing between their structural components. Advanced computational models are necessary to consider the influence of these aspects. However, realistically reproducing the post-collapse state of an existing URM building is challenging when limited data is available on the aforementioned features. To address this challenge, a framework for exploring the seismic behavior of URM buildings is presented. The current investigation presents two case study buildings located in Türkiye's Hatay province: the Mithatpaşa Primary School in Iskenderun and the Liwan Boutique Hotel in Antakya, both of which suffered partial collapses during the recent Kahramanmaraş Earthquakes in 2023. Discrete block models of the two case study buildings are generated based on geometrical information obtained from various pre- and post-collapse vision-based data sources. An automatic block generation algorithm is proposed to replicate periodic and nonperiodic masonry wall patterns. Next, the generated discrete block media are analyzed using discontinuum-based structural analysis to predict the seismic response of the structures. Comparisons between the preliminary pushover analysis results and collapse observations inform further analyses, and lead to an exploration of how construction morphology and connection detailing may have contributed to the partial collapse of the buildings. It is demonstrated that this iterative approach, supported by forensic site evidence and reverse engineering analysis, provides new insight into the influence of key factors that contribute to collapse. This information can help safeguard similar structures and inform the development of effective retrofitting solutions.

Keywords

Masonry computational modeling structural analysis discrete element method collapse mechanism forensic engineering

References

  • Roca P, Cervera M, Gariup G, Pelà L (2010) Structural analysis of masonry historical constructions. Classical and advanced approaches. Arch Comput Methods Eng 17:299–325. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11831-010-9046-1
  • Lourenço PB, Rots JG, Blaauwendraad J (1998) Continuum model for masonry: Parameter estimation and validation. J Struct Eng 124:642–652. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1998)124:6(642)
  • Funari MF, Spadea S, Lonetti P, et al (2020) Visual programming for structural assessment of out-of-plane mechanisms in historic masonry structures. J Build Eng 31:101425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101425
  • Funari MF, Hajjat AE, Masciotta MG, et al (2021) A parametric scan-to-FEM framework for the digital twin generation of historic masonry structures. Sustain 13:11088. https://doi.org/10.3390/su131911088
  • Saloustros S, Pelà L, Contrafatto FR, et al (2019) Analytical Derivation of Seismic Fragility Curves for Historical Masonry Structures Based on Stochastic Analysis of Uncertain Material Parameters. Int J Archit Herit 13:1142–1164. https://doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2019.1638992
  • Lourenço PB, Rots JG (1997) Multisurface interface model for analysis of masonry structures. J Eng Mech 123:660–668
  • Foti D, Vacca V, Facchini I (2018) DEM modeling and experimental analysis of the static behavior of a dry-joints masonry cross vaults. Constr Build Mater 170:111–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.02.202
  • Pulatsu B, Erdogmus E, Lourenço PB, et al (2020) Discontinuum analysis of the fracture mechanism in masonry prisms and wallettes via discrete element method. Meccanica 55:505–523. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11012-020-01133-1
  • Gonen S, Pulatsu B, Erdogmus E, et al (2021) Quasi-static nonlinear seismic assessment of a fourth century A.D. Roman Aqueduct in Istanbul, Turkey. Heritage 4:401–421. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4010025 https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures7030031
  • Pulatsu B, Tuncay K (2024) Computational Modeling of Damage Progression in Unreinforced Masonry Walls via DEM. Turkish J Civ Eng 35:. https://doi.org/10.18400/tjce.1323977
  • Malomo D, Pulatsu B (2024) Discontinuum models for the structural and seismic assessment of unreinforced masonry structures: a critical appraisal. Structures 62:106108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2024.106108
  • Griesbach P, Wilson R, Karakus B, Pulatsu B (2023) Transferring vision-based data to discontinuum analysis for the assessment of URM walls. Eur J Environ Civ Eng 0:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2023.2254376
  • Loverdos D, Sarhosis V (2024) Pixel-level block classification and crack detection from 3D reconstruction models of masonry structures using convolutional neural networks. Eng Struct 310:118113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2024.118113
  • Milani G, Esquivel YW, Lourenço PB, et al (2013) Characterization of the response of quasi-periodic masonry: Geometrical investigation, homogenization and application to the Guimarães castle, Portugal. Eng Struct 56:621–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2013.05.040
  • Loverdos D, Sarhosis V (2023) Image2DEM: A geometrical digital twin generator for the detailed structural analysis of existing masonry infrastructure stock. SoftwareX 22:101323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.softx.2023.101323
  • Garbioglu Ö (2017) Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’e Hatay’daki Kamu Yapilari. Mimar Sinan Güzel Sanatlar Üniversitesi
  • Cundall PA (1971) A computer model for simulating progressive, large-scale movements in blocky rock systems. In: The International Symposium on Rock Mechanics. Nancy, pp 47–65
  • Cundall PA (1988) Formulation of a Three-dimensional Disctinct Element Model - Part I. A Scheme to Detect and Represent Contacts in a System Composed of Many Polyhedral Blocks. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech 25:107–116
  • Hart R, Cundall PA, Lemos J V. (1988) Formulation of a three-dimensional distinct element model - Part II. Mechanical calculations for Motion and Interaction of a System Composed of Many Polyhedral Blocks. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech 25:117–125
  • Pulatsu B, Erdogmus E, Lourenço PB, et al (2020) Simulation of the in-plane structural behavior of unreinforced masonry walls and buildings using DEM. Structures 27:2274–2287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2020.08.026
  • Pulatsu B (2023) Coupled elasto-softening contact models in DEM to predict the in-plane response of masonry walls. Comput Part Mech 10:1759–1770. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40571-023-00586-x
  • Itasca Consulting Group Inc. (2013) 3DEC Three Dimensional Distinct Element Code
  • Cundall PA, C. D (2017) Dynamic relaxation applied to continuum and discontinuum numerical models in geomechanics, 1st Editio. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
  • Pirchio D, Walsh KQ, Kerr E, et al (2021) Integrated framework to structurally model unreinforced masonry Italian medieval churches from photogrammetry to finite element model analysis through heritage building information modeling. Eng Struct 241:112439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2021.112439
  • Crespi P, Franchi A, Ronca P, et al (2015) From BIM to FEM: the analysis of an historical masonry building. Build Inf Model Des Constr Oper 1:581–592. https://doi.org/10.2495/bim150471
  • Milani G, Esquivel YW, Lourenço PB, et al (2013) Characterization of the response of quasi-periodic masonry: Geometrical investigation, homogenization and application to the Guimarães castle, Portugal. Eng Struct 56:621–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2013.05.040
  • Loverdos D, Sarhosis V, Adamopoulos E, Drougkas A (2021) An innovative image processing-based framework for the numerical modeling of cracked masonry structures. Autom Constr 125:103633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2021.103633
  • Bozyigit B, Ozdemir A, Donmez K, et al (2024) Damage to monumental masonry buildings in Hatay and Osmaniye following the 2023 Turkey earthquake sequence: The role of wall geometry, construction quality, and material properties. Earthq Spectra. https://doi.org/10.1177/87552930241247031
  • Mijic N, Sestic M, Koljancic M (2017) CAD—GIS BIM Integration—Case Study of Banja Luka City Center. In: Hadzikadic M, Avdakovic S (eds) Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 3. Spring International Publishing, pp 267–281
  • Ferrante A, Loverdos D, Clementi F, et al (2021) Discontinuous approaches for nonlinear dynamic analyses of an ancient masonry tower. Eng Struct 230:111626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.111626
  • Mishra M, Lourenço PB (2024) Artificial intelligence-assisted visual inspection for cultural heritage: State-of-the-art review. J Cult Herit 66:536–550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2024.01.005
  • Borri A, Corradi M, De Maria A (2020) The Failure of Masonry Walls by Disaggregation and the Masonry Quality Index. Heritage 3:1162–1198. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage3040065
  • Borri A, Corradi M, Castori G (2015) A method for the analysis and classification of historic masonry. Bull Earthq Eng 2647–2665. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-015-9731-4
  • Wilson R, Pouragha M, Acikgoz S, Pulatsu, B (2025) A DEM-based computational modelling framework to investigate fracture processes in clay brick and masonry composite. Computational Particle Mechanics. (Accepted)
  • Erdogmus E, Pulatsu B, Gaggioli A, Hoff M (2021) Reverse Engineering a Fully Collapsed Ancient Roman Temple through Geoarchaeology and DEM. Int J Archit Herit 15:1795–1815. https://doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2020.1728593
  • Alexakis H, Makris N (2017) Hinging Mechanisms of Masonry Single-Nave Barrel Vaults Subjected to Lateral and Gravity Loads. J Struct Eng 143:4017026. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)st.1943-541x.0001762
  • Lourenço PB, Gaetani A (2022) Recommended properties for advanced numerical analysis. In: Finite Element Analysis for Building Assessment. Routledge, New York, pp 209–320
There are 37 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Numerical Modelization in Civil Engineering
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Andrei Farcasiu 0009-0002-3692-1840

Peter Griesbach 0009-0007-3552-9018

Rhea Wilson 0000-0003-1171-2110

Sinan Acikgoz 0000-0002-3901-574X

Bora Pulatsu 0000-0002-7040-0734

Early Pub Date April 18, 2025
Publication Date
Submission Date October 12, 2024
Acceptance Date April 16, 2025
Published in Issue Year 2025 Volume: 36 Issue: 5

Cite

APA Farcasiu, A., Griesbach, P., Wilson, R., Acikgoz, S., et al. (2025). Post-Earthquake Forensic Examination of Two Unreinforced Masonry Buildings via Discontinuum-Based Analysis. Turkish Journal of Civil Engineering, 36(5). https://doi.org/10.18400/tjce.1565654
AMA Farcasiu A, Griesbach P, Wilson R, Acikgoz S, Pulatsu B. Post-Earthquake Forensic Examination of Two Unreinforced Masonry Buildings via Discontinuum-Based Analysis. TJCE. April 2025;36(5). doi:10.18400/tjce.1565654
Chicago Farcasiu, Andrei, Peter Griesbach, Rhea Wilson, Sinan Acikgoz, and Bora Pulatsu. “Post-Earthquake Forensic Examination of Two Unreinforced Masonry Buildings via Discontinuum-Based Analysis”. Turkish Journal of Civil Engineering 36, no. 5 (April 2025). https://doi.org/10.18400/tjce.1565654.
EndNote Farcasiu A, Griesbach P, Wilson R, Acikgoz S, Pulatsu B (April 1, 2025) Post-Earthquake Forensic Examination of Two Unreinforced Masonry Buildings via Discontinuum-Based Analysis. Turkish Journal of Civil Engineering 36 5
IEEE A. Farcasiu, P. Griesbach, R. Wilson, S. Acikgoz, and B. Pulatsu, “Post-Earthquake Forensic Examination of Two Unreinforced Masonry Buildings via Discontinuum-Based Analysis”, TJCE, vol. 36, no. 5, 2025, doi: 10.18400/tjce.1565654.
ISNAD Farcasiu, Andrei et al. “Post-Earthquake Forensic Examination of Two Unreinforced Masonry Buildings via Discontinuum-Based Analysis”. Turkish Journal of Civil Engineering 36/5 (April 2025). https://doi.org/10.18400/tjce.1565654.
JAMA Farcasiu A, Griesbach P, Wilson R, Acikgoz S, Pulatsu B. Post-Earthquake Forensic Examination of Two Unreinforced Masonry Buildings via Discontinuum-Based Analysis. TJCE. 2025;36. doi:10.18400/tjce.1565654.
MLA Farcasiu, Andrei et al. “Post-Earthquake Forensic Examination of Two Unreinforced Masonry Buildings via Discontinuum-Based Analysis”. Turkish Journal of Civil Engineering, vol. 36, no. 5, 2025, doi:10.18400/tjce.1565654.
Vancouver Farcasiu A, Griesbach P, Wilson R, Acikgoz S, Pulatsu B. Post-Earthquake Forensic Examination of Two Unreinforced Masonry Buildings via Discontinuum-Based Analysis. TJCE. 2025;36(5).