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Mısır’da Devrim ve Karşı Devrim: Dış Aktörlerin Rolü

Year 2020, , 169 - 201, 30.06.2020

Ayfer Erdogan

https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.631924
Cited By: 1

Abstract

Mısır’ın demokratik yollarla seçilen ilk Cumhurbaşkanı Muhammed Mursi 2013’te askeri darbe sonucu devrildi. O tarihten bu yana, ülkede demokrasi, bireysel özgürlükler ve sosyal adalet alanlarında ciddi gerileme yaşandı. Mısır’ın siyasi geçiş süreci ve ülkede gerçekleşen askeri darbe doğrudan veya dolaylı bir şekilde bu süreçte yer alan dış aktörlerin rolünden bağımsız olarak düşünülemez. Demokrasi ve siyasi reformlara vurgu yapan söylemlerine karşın, hem ABD hem de Avrupa Birliği İslamcı grupların bölgedeki çıkarlarına zarar vereceği korkusuyla, Mısır’da demokrasiye geçişin teşvik edilmesi konusunda tutarlı ve katkı sağlayıcı politikalar izleyemedi. Diğer yandan, Körfez monarşileri Mısır’da demokratik bir şekilde seçilmiş rejime karşı bir kalkan olarak askeri rejime finansal ve siyasi destek vererek askeri yönetimin güçlendirilmesinde önemli rol oynamıştır. Bu makale Mısır’ın müttefiklerinin, diğer bir deyişle, Avrupa Birliği, Amerika Birleşik Devletleri ve Körfez monarşilerinin 25 Ocak Devrimi ve 2013 askeri darbe karşısında izledikleri politikaların Mısır’ın siyasi geçiş sürecini nasıl etkilediğini incelemektedir. Makalenin ana tezi, dış aktörlerin izledikleri politikaların Mısır’da demokratik değişime olanak tanımayan siyasi bir ortam oluşturduğudur.

Keywords

Mısır Dış Aktörler Siyasi Geçiş Otoriterizm Askeri Rejim

References

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  • Hawthorne, Amy. “What’s Happening with Suspended Military Aid for Egypt? Part 1.” Atlantic Council, October 16, 2014. https://www. atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/what-s-happening-withsuspended-military-aid-for-egypt-part-i/.
  • Hearst, David. “Why Saudi Arabia is Taking a Risk by backing the Egyptian Coup?.” The Guardian, August 20, 2013, https://www.theguardian. com/commentisfree/2013/aug/20/saudi-arabia-coup-egypt.
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  • Human Rights Watch. “US: Don’t Green Light Egypt’s Repression.” April 9, 2019. https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/04/09/us-dont-green-lightegypts-repression.
  • Kaphle, Anup. “Timeline: How the Benghazi Attacks Played Out.” Washington Post, June 17, 2014. https://www.washingtonpost.com/ world/national-security/timeline-how-the-benghazi-attack-playedout/2014/06/17/a5c34e90-f62c-11e3-a3a5-42be35962a52_story.html
  • Kirkpatrick, David. “In Egypt Race, Battle is Joined on Islam’s Role.” New York Times, April 23, 2012. https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/24/ world/middleeast/in-egypt-morsi-escalates-battle-over-islams-role. html.
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Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Egypt: The Role of External Actors

Year 2020, , 169 - 201, 30.06.2020

Ayfer Erdogan

https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.631924
Cited By: 1

Abstract

In 2013, Egypt’s first democratically elected president Mohammed Morsi was overthrown by a military coup. Since then the country has undergone serious setbacks in terms of democracy, individual freedoms, and social justice. Egypt’s failed revolution and the military coup could not be thought independently from the role of external actors - either directly or indirectly involved in this process. Despite their political rhetoric emphasizing democracy promotion and political reforms, both the US and the EU failed to pursue consistent and contributory policies in promoting democratic transition in Egypt out of fear that the electoral victory of Islamist groups would harm their interests in the region. On the other hand, the Gulf Monarchies played a pivotal role in the entrenchment of the military rule by providing financial and political support to the military-backed government as a shield against the democratically elected government in Egypt. This article investigates how the policies adopted by Egypt’s key allies, the European Union, the US and the Gulf Monarchies, impacted the trajectory of Egypt’s political transition in the face of the January 25 revolution and 2013 military coup. The main thesis of the article is that the policies pursued by external actors created a political environment unfavorable for democratic change in Egypt.

Keywords

Egypt External Actors Political Transition Authoritarianism Military Regime

References

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  • Diamond, Larry. “Why Are There No Arab Democracies?.” Journal of Democracy 21, no. 1 (January 2010): 93-104. https://doi.org/10.1353/ jod.0.0150.
  • Gause, Gregory F. “Kings for All Seasons: How the Middle East’s Monarchies Survived the Arab Spring.” Brookings Doha Center Analysis Paper, no. 8 (September 2013): 1-33.
  • Huber, Daniela. “US and EU Human Rights and Democracy Promotion since the Arab Spring: Rethinking its Content, Targets and Instruments.” The International Spectator: Italian Journal of International Affairs 48, no. 3 (September 2013): 98 -112. https://doi.org/10.1080/039327 29.2013.787827.
  • Levitsky, Steven, and Lucan A. Way. “International Linkage and Democratization.” Journal of Democracy 16, no. 3 (July 2005): 20-34. doi:10.1353/jod.2005.0048.
  • Ottoway, Marina, and Julia Choucair-Vizoso. Beyond Façade: Political Reform in the Arab World. Washington DC: United Book Press, 2008.
  • Pierce, Anne R. “US Partnership with the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood and its Effect on Civil Society and Human Rights.” Society 51, no. 1 (2014): 68-86.
  • Selim, Gamal. The International Dimensions of Democratization in Egypt. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2015.
  • Totten, Michael J., David Schenker, and Hussain Abdul-Hussain. “Arab Spring or Islamist Winter? Three Views.” World Affairs 174, no. 5 (January/ February 2012): 23-42.
  • Vincent, Philippe Droz. “The Security Sector in Egypt: Management, Coercion and External Alliance Under the Dynamics of Change.” In The Arab State and Neo-Liberal Globalisation, The Restructuring of State Power in the Middle East, edited by Laura Guazzone, and Daniela Pioppi, 219-45. UK : Ithaca Press, 2009.
  • Ahram Online. “Egypt’s Morsi’s Advisor Repeats Calls for Camp David Amendment.” October 4, 2012. http://english.ahram.org.eg/ NewsContent/1/64/54836/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-Morsis-advisorrepeats-calls-for-Camp-David.aspx.
  • Al-Anani, Khalil. “Egypt’s Freedom and Justice Party: To Be or Not to Be Independent.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, June 1, 2011. http://carnegieendowment.org/sada/44324.
  • Byman, Daniel. “Saudi Arabia is a Partner, Not a Friend.” The Atlantic, September 30, 2016. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/ archive/2016/09/saudi-arabia-obama-al-qaeda-terrorism/502343/.
  • Carothers, Thomas, and Nathan Brown. “Recalibrating U.S. Policy in Egypt.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, May 2, 2013, http://carnegieendowment.org/2013/05/02/recalibrating-u.s.-policyin-egypt-pub-51691.
  • Carothers, Thomas. US Democracy Promotion During and After Bush. Washington D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2007, https://carnegieendowment.org/files/democracy_promotion_after_ bush_final.pdf.
  • “Clinton Cautiously Welcomes Muslim Brotherhood Talks.” The Economic Times, February 6, 2011. https://economictimes.indiatimes. com/news/politics-and-nation/clinton-cautiously-welcomes-muslimbrotherhood-talks/articleshow/7437374.cms.
  • Dot-Pouillard, Nicholas. “Iran and the Muslim Brotherhood: The Best of Enemies?.” Middle East Eye, May 20, 2016, http://www.middleeasteye. net/news/iran-and-muslim-brotherhood-best-enemies-2061107490.
  • Dugit-Gros, Mathilde. “Foreign Influence in the Middle East: Changes in Perceptions and Expectations.” Arab Reform Initiative, September 10, 2015. https://www.arab-reform.net/en/ node/763.
  • El-Auwad, Fouad. “Egypt, Gulf States Strengthen Their Ties.” Deutsche Welle, August 25, 2012. http://www.dw.com/en/egypt-gulf-statesstrengthen-their-ties/a-16193917.
  • Eleiba, Ahmed. “Egypt’s Political Forces Call on Morsi to Freeze all relations with Israel.” Ahram Online, November 17, 2012. http:// english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/58366/Egypt/Politics-/ Egypts-political-forces-call-on-Morsi-to-freeze-al.aspx.
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  • Exum, Andrew, and Zack Synder. “Democracy Demotion in Egypt: Is the United States a Willing Accomplice?.” Washington Institute Policy Analysis 1212, March 23, 2007. https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/ policy-analysis/view/democracy-demotion-in-egypt-is-the-unitedstates-a-willing-accomplice.
  • Ghezali, Rabah. “Arab Spring, Islamist Winter?.” Huffington Post, January 18, 2012. https://www.huffingtonpost.com/rabah-ghezali/arab-springislamist-wint_b _12127 94.html.
  • Gordon, Micheal R. “Egyptians Following Right Path.” New York Times, November 3, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/04/world/ middleeast/kerry-egypt-visit.html.
  • Hawthorne, Amy. “What’s Happening with Suspended Military Aid for Egypt? Part 1.” Atlantic Council, October 16, 2014. https://www. atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/what-s-happening-withsuspended-military-aid-for-egypt-part-i/.
  • Hearst, David. “Why Saudi Arabia is Taking a Risk by backing the Egyptian Coup?.” The Guardian, August 20, 2013, https://www.theguardian. com/commentisfree/2013/aug/20/saudi-arabia-coup-egypt.
  • Hilal, Maha. “Abu Ghraib: The Legacy of Torture in the War on Terror.” Aljazeera, October 1, 2017. https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/ abu-ghraib-legacy -torture-war-terror-17 0928 154012053.html.
  • Human Rights Watch. “US: Don’t Green Light Egypt’s Repression.” April 9, 2019. https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/04/09/us-dont-green-lightegypts-repression.
  • Kaphle, Anup. “Timeline: How the Benghazi Attacks Played Out.” Washington Post, June 17, 2014. https://www.washingtonpost.com/ world/national-security/timeline-how-the-benghazi-attack-playedout/2014/06/17/a5c34e90-f62c-11e3-a3a5-42be35962a52_story.html
  • Kirkpatrick, David. “In Egypt Race, Battle is Joined on Islam’s Role.” New York Times, April 23, 2012. https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/24/ world/middleeast/in-egypt-morsi-escalates-battle-over-islams-role. html.
  • Lizza, Ryan. “The Consequentialist: How the Arab Spring Remade Obama’s Foreign Policy.” The New Yorker, May 2, 2011. https://www. newyorker.com/magazine/2011/05/02/the-conse quentialist.
  • Loveluck, Louisa. “Egypt’s Military Rise to Power ‘Partly Bankrolled by Emirates’ Audio Recording Suggests.” Telegraph, March 2, 2015. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/world news/ africaandindianocean/ egypt/11445060/Egypts-military-rise-to-power-partly-bankrolled-byEmira tes-audio-recording-suggests.html.
  • Lynch, Marc. “Is the Muslim Brotherhood a Terrorist Organization or a Firewall against Violent Extremism?.” Washington Post, March 7, 2016. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/03/07/ is-the-muslim-brotherhood-a-terrorist-organization-or-a-firewallagainstviolentextremism/?utm_term=.481b82d99858.
  • Makey, Emad. “Exclusive: US Bankrolled Anti-Morsi Activists.” Aljazeera, July 10, 2013. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/featur es/2013/07/2013710113522489801.html.
  • McFaul, Michael, Amichai Magen, and Kathryn Stoner-Weiss. “Evaluating International Influences on Democratic Transitions.” Concept Paper, Stanford University Center on Democracy, Development and the Rule of Law, 2008, https://fsi-live.s3.us-west-1.amazonaws.com/ s3fs-public/res/Evaluating_International_Influences_-_Transitions_-_ Concept_ Paper.pdf.
  • Najjar, Farah. “Why U.S. Aid to Egypt is Never Under Threat?.” Aljazeera, October 3, 2017. http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/10/aid-egyptthreat-171002093316209.html.
  • Plummer, Brad. “The U.S. gives Egypt $1.5 Billion a year in Aid. Here is What it Does.” Washington Post, July 9, 2013. https://www. washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2013/07/ 09/the-u-s-gives-egypt1-5-billion-a-year-in-aid-heres-what-it-does/.
  • Salem, Paul. “Morsi Moves to Rebuild Egypt’s Mideast Leadership Role.” Carnegie Middle East Center, October 5, 2012. http://carnegie-mec. org/2012/10/05/morsi-moves-to-rebuild-egypt-s-mideast-leadershiprole-pub-49620.
  • Sharp, Jeremy M. “Egypt: Background and US Relations.” Congressional Research Service, September 2, 2009. https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/ RL33003.pdf.
  • Sharp, Jeremy M. “Egypt: The January 25 Revolution and Implicationsfor US Foreign Policy.” Congressional Research Service, February 11,2011. http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4d6f4dc5c.pdf
  • Sloan, Alastair. “Is the EU legitimizing Sisi’s Coup?.” Aljazeera, April 20, 2014. https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2014/04/eu-legitim ising-sisi-coup-egypt-2014416 1181767834.html.
  • The Washington Times. “Editorial: From Arab Spring to Islamist Winter.” October 25, 2011. https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2011/oct/25/ from-arab-spring-to-islamist-winter/.
  • The White House (Office of the Press Secretary). “Fact Sheet: President Bush Calls for a Forward Strategy of Freedom to Promote Democracy in the Middle East.” November 6, 2013. https://georgewbush-whitehouse. archives.gov/news/releases/2003/11/20031106-11.html.
  • The White House. A National Security Strategy of Engagement and Enlargement. Washington DC: The White House, 1995. http://www. dtic.mil/doctrine/doctrine/research/nss.pdf.
  • “US lifts Suspension of US $195 Million in Military Aid to Egypt.” Mada Masr, July 25, 2018. https://madamasr.com/en/2018/07/25/news/u/uslifts-suspension-of-195-million-in-military-aid-to-egypt/.
There are 45 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects International Relations (Other)
Journal Section Makaleler
Authors

Ayfer Erdogan 0000-0002-3176-587X

Publication Date June 30, 2020
Acceptance Date November 25, 2019
Published in Issue Year 2020

Cite

APA Erdogan, A. (2020). Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Egypt: The Role of External Actors. Türkiye Ortadoğu Çalışmaları Dergisi, 7(1), 169-201. https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.631924

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