Araştırma Makalesi
BibTex RIS Kaynak Göster

Air pollution and premature deaths: A panel analysis of PM2.5 effects in Europe

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 27 Sayı: 2, 228 - 237

Muhammed Tümay

Öz

This research investigates air pollution's health and economic implications, focusing on the effect of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) on premature death in the European Union (EU)-27 countries from 2007 to 2019. It employs a robust fixed-effect (FE) panel regression to analyze the data. The study considers various economic and demographic factors, including healthcare expenditure as a percentage of GDP, income distribution, healthy life expectancy at age 65, fertility rates, and total deaths. The analysis reveals that a 1% increase in PM2.5 causes a significant 1.9% rise in premature deaths. These findings urge policymakers to limit air pollution and its destructive impact on public health. The results highlight the need to integrate environmental health interventions into economic policies to protect and improve population well-being. It also adds to the existing economic literature on environmental degradation and its impact on health.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Air Pollution Premature Mortality Fixed Effects Model Enviromental Policy

Kaynakça

  • Adebayo, T. S., Nwosu, L. C., Alhassan, G. N., Uzun, B., Özkan, O., & Awosusi, A. A. (2024). Effects of health expenditure, death rate, and infant mortality rate on life expectancy: A case study of the United States. Energy & Environment, 0958305X241281804. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958305X2412818
  • Baltagi, B. H. (2021). Econometric analysis of panel data (6th ed.). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53953-5_5
  • Baum, C. (2000). XTTEST3: Stata module to compute modified wald statistics for groupwise heteroskedasticity, Statistical Software Components. S414801, Department of Economics, Boston College. Retrieved March 10, 2025 from http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/bocode/x/xttest3.hlp
  • Bedi, A. S., Nakaguma, M. Y., Restrepo, B. J., & Rieger, M. (2021). Particle pollution and cognition: Evidence from sensitive cognitive tests in Brazil. Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists. https://doi.org/10.1086/711592
  • Breusch, T. S., & Pagan, A. R. (1980). The lagrange multiplier test and its applications to model specification in econometrics. The Review of Economic Studies, 47(1), 239-253. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297111
  • Chang, T. Y., Graff Zivin, J., Gross, T., & Neidell, M. (2019). The effect of pollution on worker productivity: evidence from call center workers in China. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 11(1), 151-172. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20160436
  • Cohen, A. J., Brauer, M., Burnett, R., Anderson, H. R., Frostad, J., Estep, K., ... & Forouzanfar, M. H. (2017). Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: an analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015. The lancet, 389(10082), 1907-1918. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30505-6
  • Currie, J., Zivin, J. G., Mullins, J., & Neidell, M. (2014). What do we know about short-and long-term effects of early-life exposure to pollution?. Annu. Rev. Resour. Econ., 6(1), 217-247. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-resource-100913-012610
  • Deryugina, T., Heutel, G., Miller, N. H., Molitor, D., & Reif, J. (2019). The mortality and medical costs of air pollution: Evidence from changes in wind direction. American Economic Review, 109(12), 4178-4219. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20180279
  • Deschenes, O. (2010). Climate policy and labor markets (No. w16111). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226921983-006
  • Dockery, D. W., Pope, C. A., Xu, X., Spengler, J. D., Ware, J. H., Fay, M. E., ... & Speizer, F. E. (1993). An association between air pollution and mortality in six US cities. New England journal of medicine, 329(24), 1753-1759. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199312093292401
  • Driscoll, J. C., & Kraay, A. C. (1998). Consistent covariance matrix estimation with spatially dependent panel data. Review of economics and statistics, 80(4), 549-560. https://doi.org/10.1162/003465398557825
  • Ebenstein, A., Fan, M., Greenstone, M., He, G., & Zhou, M. (2017). New evidence on the impact of sustained exposure to air pollution on life expectancy from China’s Huai River Policy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(39), 10384-10389. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1616784114
  • Ebenstein, A., Lavy, V., & Roth, S. (2016). The long-run economic consequences of high-stakes examinations: Evidence from transitory variation in pollution. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 8(4), 36-65. http://doi.org/10.1257/app.20150213
  • European Commission (2021), Zero pollution action plan: Towards cleaner air, water, and soil. European Commission. Retrieved November 10, 2024 from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52021DC0400
  • European Commission (2022), Revision of the ambient air quality directive. European Commission. Retrieved November 10, 2024 from https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/air-quality/revision-ambient-air-quality-directives_en
  • European Environment Agency (2022), Air quality in Europe, 2022 Report: Health impacts of air pollution in Europe, 2022. European Environment Agency. Retrieved November 10, 2024 from https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/air-quality-in-europe-2022/health-impacts-of-air-pollution
  • European Environment Agency (2023), Europe’s air quality status 2023. European Environment Agency. Retrieved November 10, 2024 from https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/europes-air-quality-status-2023
  • European Environment Agency (2024), Air pollution. European Environment Agency. Retrieved November 10, 2024 from https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/topics/in-depth/air-pollution
  • Fang, Y., Mauzerall, D. L., Liu, J., Fiore, A. M., & Horowitz, L. W. (2013). Impacts of 21st century climate change on global air pollution-related premature mortality. Climatic Change, 121, 239-253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-013-0847-8
  • Fu, S., Viard, V. B., & Zhang, P. (2021). Air pollution and manufacturing firm productivity: Nationwide estimates for China. The Economic Journal, 131(640), 3241-3273. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/ueab033
  • Gildea TR, DaCosta Byfield S, Hogarth DK, Wilson DS, Quinn CC (2017). A retrospective analysis of delays in the diagnosis of lung cancer and associated costs. Clinicoecon Outcomes Res. 2017;9:261-269. https://doi.org/10.2147/CEOR.S132259
  • Gourley, P. (2020). What are the long-term effects of prenatal air pollution exposure? evidence from the bhps. Eastern Economic Journal, 46(4), 603-635. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41302-020-00173-5
  • Greene, W. H. (2018). Econometric analysis (8th ed.). Pearson.
  • Hansen-Lewis, J. (2018, October). Does air pollution lower productivity? Evidence from manufacturing in India. In PAA 2018 Annual Meeting. PAA.
  • Hausman, J. A. (1978). Specification tests in econometrics. Econometrica, 46(6), 1251–1271. https://doi.org/10.2307/1913827
  • Jeon, S. M., Kwon, J. W., Choi, S. H., & Park, H. Y. (2019). Economic burden of lung cancer: A retrospective cohort study in South Korea, 2002-2015. PLoS One, 14(2), e0212878. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212878
  • Jerrett, M., Burnett, R. T., Pope III, C. A., Ito, K., Thurston, G., Krewski, D., ... & Thun, M. (2009). Long-term ozone exposure and mortality. New England Journal of Medicine, 360(11), 1085-1095. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0803894
  • Khomenko, S., Cirach, M., Pereira-Barboza, E., Mueller, N., Barrera-Gómez, J., Rojas-Rueda, D., ... & Nieuwenhuijsen, M. (2021). Premature mortality due to air pollution in European cities: a health impact assessment. The Lancet Planetary Health, 5(3), e121-e134. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30272-2
  • La Nauze, A., & Severnini, E. (2024). Air pollution and adult cognition: Evidence from brain training. https://doi.org/10.1086/730390
  • Le Bourg, E. (2007). Does reproduction decrease longevity in human beings?. Ageing research reviews, 6(2), 141-149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2007.04.002
  • Lelieveld, J., Klingmüller, K., Pozzer, A., Pöschl, U., Fnais, M., Daiber, A., & Münzel, T. (2019). Cardiovascular disease burden from ambient air pollution in Europe reassessed using novel hazard ratio functions. European heart journal, 40(20), 1590-1596. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehz135
  • Matus, K., Nam, K. M., Selin, N. E., Lamsal, L. N., Reilly, J. M., & Paltsev, S. (2012). Health damages from air pollution in China. Global environmental change, 22(1), 55-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.08.006
  • May, A. M., Struijk, E. A., Fransen, H. P., Onland-Moret, N. C., de Wit, G. A., Boer, J. M., ... & Beulens, J. W. (2015). The impact of a healthy lifestyle on Disability-Adjusted Life Years: a prospective cohort study. BMC medicine, 13, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-015-0287-6
  • OECD (2016), The economic consequences of outdoor air pollution, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264257474-en.
  • Persico, C., Figlio, D., & Roth, J. (2020). The developmental consequences of superfund sites. Journal of Labor Economics, 38(4), 1055-1097. https://doi.org/10.1086/706807
  • Plümper, T., & Neumayer, E. (2013). Health spending, out‐of‐pocket contributions, and mortality rates. Public Administration, 91(2), 403-418. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9299.2012.02039.x
  • Wong, C. M., Lai, H. K., Tsang, H., Thach, T. Q., Thomas, G. N., Lam, K. B. H., ... & Lam, T. H. (2015). Satellite-based estimates of long-term exposure to fine particles and association with mortality in elderly Hong Kong residents. Environmental health perspectives, 123(11), 1167-1172. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408264
  • Wooldridge, J. M. (2010). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data. MIT press.
  • World Health Organization (2021), WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (‎PM2.5 and PM10)‎, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide. World Health Organization. Retrieved November 10, 2024 from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240034228
  • World Health Organization. (2024). WHO air quality, energies and health: Health impact. Technical information. World Health Organization. Retrieved January 14, 2025 from https://www.who.int/teams/environment-climate-change-and-health/air-quality-and-health/health-impacts/types-of-pollutants
  • Yin, P., Brauer, M., Cohen, A., Burnett, R. T., Liu, J., Liu, Y., ... & Zhou, M. (2017). Long-term fine particulate matter exposure and nonaccidental and cause-specific mortality in a large national cohort of Chinese men. Environmental health perspectives, 125(11), 117002. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1673
  • Zhou, T., & Zhang, N. (2023). Does air pollution decrease labor share? Evidence from China. Global Environmental Change, 82, 102706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2023.102706
  • Zivin, J. G., & Neidell, M. (2012). The impact of pollution on worker productivity. American Economic Review, 102(7), 3652-3673. http://doi.org/10.1257/aer.102.7.3652

Hava kirliliği ve erken ölümler: Avrupa'da PM2.5 etkilerinin panel analizi

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 27 Sayı: 2, 228 - 237

Muhammed Tümay

Öz

Bu araştırma, 2007'den 2019'a kadar Avrupa Birliği (AB)-27 ülkelerinde ince partikül maddenin (PM2.5) erken ölümler üzerindeki etkisine odaklanarak hava kirliliğinin sağlık ve ekonomik etkilerini araştırmaktadır. Verileri analiz etmek için sağlam sabit etkili (FE) panel regresyonu kullanmaktadır. Çalışma, GSYH'nin yüzdesi olarak sağlık harcamaları, gelir dağılımı, 65 yaşında sağlıklı yaşam beklentisi, doğurganlık oranları ve toplam ölümler dahil olmak üzere çeşitli ekonomik ve demografik faktörleri dikkate almaktadır. Analiz, PM2.5’teki %1’lik artışın erken ölümlerde %1,9 oranında önemli bir artışa neden olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Bu bulgular, politika yapıcılarını hava kirliliğini ve bunun halk sağlığı üzerindeki yıkıcı etkisini sınırlandırmaya teşvik etmektedir. Sonuçlar, nüfusun refahını korumak ve iyileştirmek için çevre sağlığı müdahalelerini ekonomi politikalarına entegre etme ihtiyacını vurgulamaktadır. Ayrıca, çevresel bozulma ve bunun sağlık üzerindeki etkisine ilişkin mevcut ekonomik literatüre de katkıda bulunmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Hava Kirliliği Erken Ölüm Sabit Etkiler Modeli Çevre Politikası

Kaynakça

  • Adebayo, T. S., Nwosu, L. C., Alhassan, G. N., Uzun, B., Özkan, O., & Awosusi, A. A. (2024). Effects of health expenditure, death rate, and infant mortality rate on life expectancy: A case study of the United States. Energy & Environment, 0958305X241281804. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958305X2412818
  • Baltagi, B. H. (2021). Econometric analysis of panel data (6th ed.). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53953-5_5
  • Baum, C. (2000). XTTEST3: Stata module to compute modified wald statistics for groupwise heteroskedasticity, Statistical Software Components. S414801, Department of Economics, Boston College. Retrieved March 10, 2025 from http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/bocode/x/xttest3.hlp
  • Bedi, A. S., Nakaguma, M. Y., Restrepo, B. J., & Rieger, M. (2021). Particle pollution and cognition: Evidence from sensitive cognitive tests in Brazil. Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists. https://doi.org/10.1086/711592
  • Breusch, T. S., & Pagan, A. R. (1980). The lagrange multiplier test and its applications to model specification in econometrics. The Review of Economic Studies, 47(1), 239-253. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297111
  • Chang, T. Y., Graff Zivin, J., Gross, T., & Neidell, M. (2019). The effect of pollution on worker productivity: evidence from call center workers in China. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 11(1), 151-172. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20160436
  • Cohen, A. J., Brauer, M., Burnett, R., Anderson, H. R., Frostad, J., Estep, K., ... & Forouzanfar, M. H. (2017). Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: an analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015. The lancet, 389(10082), 1907-1918. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30505-6
  • Currie, J., Zivin, J. G., Mullins, J., & Neidell, M. (2014). What do we know about short-and long-term effects of early-life exposure to pollution?. Annu. Rev. Resour. Econ., 6(1), 217-247. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-resource-100913-012610
  • Deryugina, T., Heutel, G., Miller, N. H., Molitor, D., & Reif, J. (2019). The mortality and medical costs of air pollution: Evidence from changes in wind direction. American Economic Review, 109(12), 4178-4219. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20180279
  • Deschenes, O. (2010). Climate policy and labor markets (No. w16111). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226921983-006
  • Dockery, D. W., Pope, C. A., Xu, X., Spengler, J. D., Ware, J. H., Fay, M. E., ... & Speizer, F. E. (1993). An association between air pollution and mortality in six US cities. New England journal of medicine, 329(24), 1753-1759. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199312093292401
  • Driscoll, J. C., & Kraay, A. C. (1998). Consistent covariance matrix estimation with spatially dependent panel data. Review of economics and statistics, 80(4), 549-560. https://doi.org/10.1162/003465398557825
  • Ebenstein, A., Fan, M., Greenstone, M., He, G., & Zhou, M. (2017). New evidence on the impact of sustained exposure to air pollution on life expectancy from China’s Huai River Policy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(39), 10384-10389. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1616784114
  • Ebenstein, A., Lavy, V., & Roth, S. (2016). The long-run economic consequences of high-stakes examinations: Evidence from transitory variation in pollution. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 8(4), 36-65. http://doi.org/10.1257/app.20150213
  • European Commission (2021), Zero pollution action plan: Towards cleaner air, water, and soil. European Commission. Retrieved November 10, 2024 from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52021DC0400
  • European Commission (2022), Revision of the ambient air quality directive. European Commission. Retrieved November 10, 2024 from https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/air-quality/revision-ambient-air-quality-directives_en
  • European Environment Agency (2022), Air quality in Europe, 2022 Report: Health impacts of air pollution in Europe, 2022. European Environment Agency. Retrieved November 10, 2024 from https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/air-quality-in-europe-2022/health-impacts-of-air-pollution
  • European Environment Agency (2023), Europe’s air quality status 2023. European Environment Agency. Retrieved November 10, 2024 from https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/europes-air-quality-status-2023
  • European Environment Agency (2024), Air pollution. European Environment Agency. Retrieved November 10, 2024 from https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/topics/in-depth/air-pollution
  • Fang, Y., Mauzerall, D. L., Liu, J., Fiore, A. M., & Horowitz, L. W. (2013). Impacts of 21st century climate change on global air pollution-related premature mortality. Climatic Change, 121, 239-253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-013-0847-8
  • Fu, S., Viard, V. B., & Zhang, P. (2021). Air pollution and manufacturing firm productivity: Nationwide estimates for China. The Economic Journal, 131(640), 3241-3273. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/ueab033
  • Gildea TR, DaCosta Byfield S, Hogarth DK, Wilson DS, Quinn CC (2017). A retrospective analysis of delays in the diagnosis of lung cancer and associated costs. Clinicoecon Outcomes Res. 2017;9:261-269. https://doi.org/10.2147/CEOR.S132259
  • Gourley, P. (2020). What are the long-term effects of prenatal air pollution exposure? evidence from the bhps. Eastern Economic Journal, 46(4), 603-635. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41302-020-00173-5
  • Greene, W. H. (2018). Econometric analysis (8th ed.). Pearson.
  • Hansen-Lewis, J. (2018, October). Does air pollution lower productivity? Evidence from manufacturing in India. In PAA 2018 Annual Meeting. PAA.
  • Hausman, J. A. (1978). Specification tests in econometrics. Econometrica, 46(6), 1251–1271. https://doi.org/10.2307/1913827
  • Jeon, S. M., Kwon, J. W., Choi, S. H., & Park, H. Y. (2019). Economic burden of lung cancer: A retrospective cohort study in South Korea, 2002-2015. PLoS One, 14(2), e0212878. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212878
  • Jerrett, M., Burnett, R. T., Pope III, C. A., Ito, K., Thurston, G., Krewski, D., ... & Thun, M. (2009). Long-term ozone exposure and mortality. New England Journal of Medicine, 360(11), 1085-1095. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0803894
  • Khomenko, S., Cirach, M., Pereira-Barboza, E., Mueller, N., Barrera-Gómez, J., Rojas-Rueda, D., ... & Nieuwenhuijsen, M. (2021). Premature mortality due to air pollution in European cities: a health impact assessment. The Lancet Planetary Health, 5(3), e121-e134. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30272-2
  • La Nauze, A., & Severnini, E. (2024). Air pollution and adult cognition: Evidence from brain training. https://doi.org/10.1086/730390
  • Le Bourg, E. (2007). Does reproduction decrease longevity in human beings?. Ageing research reviews, 6(2), 141-149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2007.04.002
  • Lelieveld, J., Klingmüller, K., Pozzer, A., Pöschl, U., Fnais, M., Daiber, A., & Münzel, T. (2019). Cardiovascular disease burden from ambient air pollution in Europe reassessed using novel hazard ratio functions. European heart journal, 40(20), 1590-1596. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehz135
  • Matus, K., Nam, K. M., Selin, N. E., Lamsal, L. N., Reilly, J. M., & Paltsev, S. (2012). Health damages from air pollution in China. Global environmental change, 22(1), 55-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.08.006
  • May, A. M., Struijk, E. A., Fransen, H. P., Onland-Moret, N. C., de Wit, G. A., Boer, J. M., ... & Beulens, J. W. (2015). The impact of a healthy lifestyle on Disability-Adjusted Life Years: a prospective cohort study. BMC medicine, 13, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-015-0287-6
  • OECD (2016), The economic consequences of outdoor air pollution, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264257474-en.
  • Persico, C., Figlio, D., & Roth, J. (2020). The developmental consequences of superfund sites. Journal of Labor Economics, 38(4), 1055-1097. https://doi.org/10.1086/706807
  • Plümper, T., & Neumayer, E. (2013). Health spending, out‐of‐pocket contributions, and mortality rates. Public Administration, 91(2), 403-418. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9299.2012.02039.x
  • Wong, C. M., Lai, H. K., Tsang, H., Thach, T. Q., Thomas, G. N., Lam, K. B. H., ... & Lam, T. H. (2015). Satellite-based estimates of long-term exposure to fine particles and association with mortality in elderly Hong Kong residents. Environmental health perspectives, 123(11), 1167-1172. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408264
  • Wooldridge, J. M. (2010). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data. MIT press.
  • World Health Organization (2021), WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (‎PM2.5 and PM10)‎, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide. World Health Organization. Retrieved November 10, 2024 from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240034228
  • World Health Organization. (2024). WHO air quality, energies and health: Health impact. Technical information. World Health Organization. Retrieved January 14, 2025 from https://www.who.int/teams/environment-climate-change-and-health/air-quality-and-health/health-impacts/types-of-pollutants
  • Yin, P., Brauer, M., Cohen, A., Burnett, R. T., Liu, J., Liu, Y., ... & Zhou, M. (2017). Long-term fine particulate matter exposure and nonaccidental and cause-specific mortality in a large national cohort of Chinese men. Environmental health perspectives, 125(11), 117002. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1673
  • Zhou, T., & Zhang, N. (2023). Does air pollution decrease labor share? Evidence from China. Global Environmental Change, 82, 102706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2023.102706
  • Zivin, J. G., & Neidell, M. (2012). The impact of pollution on worker productivity. American Economic Review, 102(7), 3652-3673. http://doi.org/10.1257/aer.102.7.3652
Toplam 44 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Makro İktisat (Diğer)
Bölüm Araştırma Makaleleri
Yazarlar

Muhammed Tümay 0000-0002-3226-3898

Erken Görünüm Tarihi 30 Mayıs 2025
Yayımlanma Tarihi
Gönderilme Tarihi 4 Ocak 2025
Kabul Tarihi 8 Mayıs 2025
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2025 Cilt: 27 Sayı: 2

Kaynak Göster

APA Tümay, M. (2025). Air pollution and premature deaths: A panel analysis of PM2.5 effects in Europe. Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi İktisadi Ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 27(2), 228-237. https://doi.org/10.33707/akuiibfd.1613250
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