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Adaptation of Sport Event Image Scale to Turkish Culture: A Validity and Reliability Study

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 16 Sayı: 1, 1 - 22, 30.04.2025

Orçun Ocakoğlu , Sema Alay Özgül , Ünal Karlı

https://doi.org/10.54141/psbd.1577086

Öz

The purpose of this study was to adapt the Turkish version of the “Sport Event Image Scale” (SEIS) developed by Kaplanidou and Vogt (2007) and to test its validity and reliability. 418 voluntary runners aged 18 years and above who agreed to attend the study and who ran in the 5km, 10km, and 21km competition routes in the "Gökova Half Marathon" event were the sample of the study. In the first stage of the adaptation process, the committee approach was utilized for language equivalence. Then, the pilot study was performed with 54 athletes who participated in the same event in the previous year via e-mail to test the comprehensibility of the scale items. In the next stage, to test the construct validity Confirmatory Factor Analysis was used. In addition, reliability was conducted with test-retest and internal consistency analysis. The CFA findings supported the single-factor structure of the scale in line with the original version (cmin/df = 3.441, RMSEA = 0.077, RMR = 0.007, GFI = 0.976, NFI = 0.994, CFI = 0.996, RFI = 0.976). The internal consistency coefficient value was 0.976 and the test-retest result was 0.901. As a result, according to the findings, it is possible to say that the adapted Turkish version of the SEIS preserved the psychometric properties, which can be used as a valid and reliable scale in future research studies that will be conducted on the Turkish population.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Event image Sport event image Sports event

Etik Beyan

Ethics committee permission was obtained for this study from “Marmara University Health Sciences Institute” within the scope of doctoral thesis (Protocol No: 21.06.2023/78).

Kaynakça

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  • Aicher, T. J. & Brenner, J. (2015). Individuals' motivation to participate in sport tourism: a self-determinationtheory perspective. International Journal of Sport Management Recreation & Tourism, 18(1), 56-81. https://doi.org/10.5199/ijsmart-1791-874X-18d
  • Aicher, T. J., Simmons, J., & Cintron, A. (2018). An analysis of running event consumer behaviors. Journal of Applied Sport Management, 10(2), 26-35. https://doi.org/10.18666/JASM-2018-V10-I2-8836
  • Alay, S. (2008). Female consumers' evaluations of sponsorship and their response to sponsorship. South African Journal for Research in Sport, Physical Education and Recreation, 30(2), 15-29. https://doi.org/10.4314/sajrs.v30i2.25976
  • Alay, S. (2010). Sponsorship evalutation scale (SES): A validity and reliability study. South African Journal for Research in Sport, Physical Education and Recreation, 32(2), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.4314/sajrs.v32i2.59291
  • Alexandris, K. (2016). Testing the role of sport event personality on the development of event involvement and loyalty. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 7(1), 2-20. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEFM-10-2015-0041
  • Anderson, J. C. & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411-423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411
  • Awang, Z. (2012). A handbook on structural equation modelling: SEM using AMOS graphic. Kota Baru: Universiti Teknologi Mara Kelantan.
  • Baloğlu, S. & McCleary, K. W. (1999). A model of destination image formation. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(4), 868-897. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(99)00030-4
  • Baumgartner, H. & Homburg, C. (1996). Applications of structural equation modeling in marketing and consumer research: A review. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 13(2), 139-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-8116(95)00038-0
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  • Cevallos, D. M., Alguacil, M., & Moreno, F. C. (2020). Influence of brand image of a sports event on the recommendation of its participants. Sustainability MDPI, 12(12), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12125040
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  • Grohs, R. & Reisinger, H. (2014). Sponsorship effects on brand image: The role of exposure and activity involvement. Journal of Business Research, 67(5), 1018–1025. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2013.08.008
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  • Gwinner, K. P. (2005). Image transfer in global sport sponsorship. Berg: NY.
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  • Gwinner, K.P. (2013). Levaraging brand in sport business. Routledge.
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  • Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2022). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). CA: Sage Publications.
  • Hallmann, K., Kaplanidou, K., & Breuer, C. (2010). Event image perceptions among active and passive sport tourists at marathon races. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 12(1), 37-52. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-12-01-2010-B005
  • Hambleton, R. K. & Patsula, L. (1999). Increasing the validity of adapted tests: Myths to be avoided and guidelines for improving test adaptation practices. Journal of Applied Testing Technology, 1(1), 1-30.
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  • Huang, H., Lunhua Mao, L., Wang, J., & Zhang, J. J. (2015). Assessing the relationships between image congruence, tourist satisfaction and intention to revisit in marathon tourism: The Shanghai International Marathon. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 16(4), 46-66. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-16-04-2015-B005
  • Jaccard, J. & Wan, C. K. W. (1996). LISREL approaches to interaction effects in multiple regression. Sage Publications.
  • Kapferer, J. N. (2012). The new strategic brand management: Advanced insights and strategic thinking. London: Kogan Page.
  • Kaplanidou, K. (2007). Affective event and destination image: Their influence on Olympic travelers' behavioral intentions. Event Management, 10(2), 159-173. https://doi.org/10.3727/152599507780676706
  • Kaplanidou, K. & Vogt, C. (2007). The interrelationship between sport event and destination image and sport tourists’ behaviours. Journal of Sport and Tourism, 12(3), 183-206. https://doi.org/10.1080/14775080701736932
  • Kaplanidou, K. (2010). Active sport tourists: Sport event image considerations. Tourism Analysis, 15(3), 381-386. https://doi.org/10.3727/108354210X12801550666303
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Yıl 2025, Cilt: 16 Sayı: 1, 1 - 22, 30.04.2025

Orçun Ocakoğlu , Sema Alay Özgül , Ünal Karlı

https://doi.org/10.54141/psbd.1577086

Öz

Kaynakça

  • Aaker, D. A. (2009). Managing brand equity: Capitalizing on the value of a brand name. NY: The Free Press.
  • Aaker, J. L. (1997). Dimensions of brand personality. Journal of Marketing Research, 34(3), 342-352. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151897
  • Aicher, T. J. & Brenner, J. (2015). Individuals' motivation to participate in sport tourism: a self-determinationtheory perspective. International Journal of Sport Management Recreation & Tourism, 18(1), 56-81. https://doi.org/10.5199/ijsmart-1791-874X-18d
  • Aicher, T. J., Simmons, J., & Cintron, A. (2018). An analysis of running event consumer behaviors. Journal of Applied Sport Management, 10(2), 26-35. https://doi.org/10.18666/JASM-2018-V10-I2-8836
  • Alay, S. (2008). Female consumers' evaluations of sponsorship and their response to sponsorship. South African Journal for Research in Sport, Physical Education and Recreation, 30(2), 15-29. https://doi.org/10.4314/sajrs.v30i2.25976
  • Alay, S. (2010). Sponsorship evalutation scale (SES): A validity and reliability study. South African Journal for Research in Sport, Physical Education and Recreation, 32(2), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.4314/sajrs.v32i2.59291
  • Alexandris, K. (2016). Testing the role of sport event personality on the development of event involvement and loyalty. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 7(1), 2-20. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEFM-10-2015-0041
  • Anderson, J. C. & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411-423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411
  • Awang, Z. (2012). A handbook on structural equation modelling: SEM using AMOS graphic. Kota Baru: Universiti Teknologi Mara Kelantan.
  • Baloğlu, S. & McCleary, K. W. (1999). A model of destination image formation. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(4), 868-897. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(99)00030-4
  • Baumgartner, H. & Homburg, C. (1996). Applications of structural equation modeling in marketing and consumer research: A review. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 13(2), 139-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-8116(95)00038-0
  • Bentler, P. M. (1980). Multivariate analysis with latent variables: Causal modeling. Annual Review Of Psychology, 31(1), 419-456. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.31.020180.002223
  • Bentler, P. M. & Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88(3), 588-606. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.88.3.588
  • Brislin, R. W. (1980). Translation and content analysis of oral and written material. Handbook of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 2(2), 349-444.
  • Byrne, B. M. (2011). Structural equation modeling with Amos basic concepts, applications and programming. NY: Routledge.
  • Cevallos, D. M., Alguacil, M., & Moreno, F. C. (2020). Influence of brand image of a sports event on the recommendation of its participants. Sustainability MDPI, 12(12), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12125040
  • Chalip, L. & Costa, C. (2005). Sport event tourism and the destination brand: Towards a general theory. Sport in Society, 8(2), 218-237. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430430500108579
  • Churchill, G. A. J. (1979). A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs. Journal of Marketing Research, 16(1), 64–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3150876
  • DeVellis, R. F. (2017). Scale development: Theory and applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Dever, A. & Sözen, (2021). Sports sociology. Gazi Publications.
  • Dos-Santos, M. A., Vveinhardt, J., Calabuig-Moreno, F., & Montoro-Rios, F. J. (2016). Involvement and image transfer in sports sponsorship. Engineering Economics, 27(1), 78–89. https://doi.org/10.5755/j01.ee.27.1.8536
  • Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Müller, H. (2003). Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Tests of significance and descriptive goodness of fit measures. Methods of Psychological Research Online, 8(2), 23-74. https://doi.org/10.23668/psycharchives.12784
  • Filo, K. R., Funk, D. C., O'Brien, D., Dwyer, L., & Fredline, L. (2008). It's really not about the bike: Exploring attraction and attachment to the events of the Lance Armstrong Foundation. Journal of Sport Management, 22(5), 501-525. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.22.5.501
  • Fornell, C. & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39-50, https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104
  • Girish, V. G. & Lee, C. (2019). The relationships of brand experience, sports event image and loyalty: Case of Jeju International Ultramarathon Race. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, (20)4, 567-582. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-08-2017-0095
  • Grohs, R. & Reisinger, H. (2014). Sponsorship effects on brand image: The role of exposure and activity involvement. Journal of Business Research, 67(5), 1018–1025. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2013.08.008
  • Gupta, K. & Singh, N. (2014). Fit estimation in SEM: A synthesis of related statistics. HSB Research Review, 8(2), 20-27.
  • Gwinner, K. P. (1997). A model of image creation and image transfer in event sponsorship. International Marketing Review, 14(3), 145-158. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02651339710170221
  • Gwinner, K. P. & Eaton, J. (1999). Building brand image through event sponsorship: The role of image transfer. Journal of Advertising, 28(4), 47‐57. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.1999.10673595
  • Gwinner, K. P. (2005). Image transfer in global sport sponsorship. Berg: NY.
  • Gwinner, K. P., Larson, B. V., & Swanson, S. R. (2009). Image transfer in corporate event sponsorship: Assessing the impact of team identification and event-sponsor fit. International Journal of Management and Marketing Research, 2(1), 1-15.
  • Gwinner, K.P. (2013). Levaraging brand in sport business. Routledge.
  • Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis. NY: Prentice Hall.
  • Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2022). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). CA: Sage Publications.
  • Hallmann, K., Kaplanidou, K., & Breuer, C. (2010). Event image perceptions among active and passive sport tourists at marathon races. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 12(1), 37-52. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-12-01-2010-B005
  • Hambleton, R. K. & Patsula, L. (1999). Increasing the validity of adapted tests: Myths to be avoided and guidelines for improving test adaptation practices. Journal of Applied Testing Technology, 1(1), 1-30.
  • Hu, L. T. & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cut off criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
  • Huang, H., Lunhua Mao, L., Wang, J., & Zhang, J. J. (2015). Assessing the relationships between image congruence, tourist satisfaction and intention to revisit in marathon tourism: The Shanghai International Marathon. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 16(4), 46-66. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-16-04-2015-B005
  • Jaccard, J. & Wan, C. K. W. (1996). LISREL approaches to interaction effects in multiple regression. Sage Publications.
  • Kapferer, J. N. (2012). The new strategic brand management: Advanced insights and strategic thinking. London: Kogan Page.
  • Kaplanidou, K. (2007). Affective event and destination image: Their influence on Olympic travelers' behavioral intentions. Event Management, 10(2), 159-173. https://doi.org/10.3727/152599507780676706
  • Kaplanidou, K. & Vogt, C. (2007). The interrelationship between sport event and destination image and sport tourists’ behaviours. Journal of Sport and Tourism, 12(3), 183-206. https://doi.org/10.1080/14775080701736932
  • Kaplanidou, K. (2010). Active sport tourists: Sport event image considerations. Tourism Analysis, 15(3), 381-386. https://doi.org/10.3727/108354210X12801550666303
  • Karagiorgos, T., Ntovoli, A., & Alexandris, K. (2022). Developing a brand personality framework in the context of outdoor small-scale sport events. Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 24(3), 246-268. https://doi.org/10.1080/15470148.2022.2158153
  • Keller, K. (2003). Undestanding brands, branding and brand equity. Journal of Direct, Data and Digital Practise, 5(1), 7-20. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.im.4340213
  • Khan, B., Ahmed, A., & Abid, G. (2016). Using the ‘big-five’ for assessing personality traits of the champions: An insinuation for the sports industry. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences, 10(1), 175-191.
  • Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. London: Guilford Publications.
  • Kogoya, K., Guntoro, T. S., & Putra, M. F. P. (2022). Sports event ımage, satisfaction, motivation, stadium atmosphere, environment, and perception: A study on the biggest multi-sport event in Indonesia during the pandemic. Social Sciences MDPI, 11(6), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11060241
  • Koo, S. K., Byon, K. K., & Baker, T. A. (2014). Integrating event image, satisfaction, and behavioral intention: Small-scale marathon event. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 23(3), 127-137.
  • Kotler, P. (2002). Marketing management: Analysis, planning and control. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
  • Lee, H. S. & Cho, C. H. (2009). The matching effect of brand and sporting event personality: Sponsorship implications. Journal of Sport Management, 23(1), 41-64. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.23.1.41
  • Lianopoulos, Y., Theodorakis, N. D., Alexandris, K., & Papanikolaou, M. (2021). Testing the relationships among event personality, event image and runners’ loyalty: A study of an international running event. Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal 12(1), 189-207. https://doi.org/10.1108/SBM-12-2020-0135
  • Lough, N. L., Pharr, J. R., & Geurin, A. (2016). I am bolder: A social cognitive examination of road raceparticipant behavior. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 25(2), 90-102.
  • Marsh, H. W. & Hocevar, D. (1985). Application of confirmatory factor analysis to the study of self-concept: First and higher order factor models and their invariance across groups. Psychological Bulletin, 97(1), 562-582. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.97.3.562
  • Marsh, H. W., Balla, J. R., & McDonald, R. P. (1988). Goodness-of-fit indexes in confirmatory factor analysis: The effect size. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 391-410. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.391
  • Martinez, G., Marin. B., & Schoua-Glusberg A. (2006). Translating from English to Spanish: The 2002 national survey of family growth. Hispanic Journal of Behaviour Science, 28(1), 531-545. https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863062922
  • Min, D. & Lee, W. (2022). The relationships between sport spectators’ experience, destination image, event image and behavioral intention: The case of the 18th FINA World Aquatics Championships. International Journal of Applied Sports Sciences, 34(2), 183-202. https://doi.org/10.24985/ijass.2022.34.2.183
  • Mulaik, S. A., James, L. R., Van Alstine, J., Bennett, N., Lind, S., & Stilwell, C. D. (1989). Evaluation of goodness-of-fit indices for structural equation models. Psychological Bulletin, 105(3), 430-445. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.105.3.430
  • Nunnally, J. C. & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  • Ocakoğlu, O. (2020). Factors influencing race selection of runners. Gazi Journal of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, 25(2), 77-92.
  • Pan, Y. & De La Puente, M. (2005). Census bureau guideline for the translation of data collection instruments and supporting materials. Washington DC: Educational Research Press.
  • Raykov, T., Tomer, A., & Nesselroade, J. R. (1991). Reporting structural equation modeling results in psychology and aging: Some proposed guidelines. Psychology and Aging, 6(1), 499–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.6.4.499
  • Simonsen, E. & Elklit, A. (2008). Experiences in translating and validating the MCMI in Denmark. NewYork: Guilford Press.
  • Steiger, J.H. (1990). Structural model evaluation and modification: An interval estimation approach. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25(2), 173-80. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr2502_4
  • Tabachnick, B. G. & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics. Boston: Pearson Education Inc.
  • Thompson, B. (2008). Foundations of behavioral statistics: An insight-based approach. New York: Guilford Press.
  • Thompson, B. & Daniel, L. G. (1996). Factor analytic evidence for the construct validity of scores: A historical overview and some guidelines. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 56(2), 197-208. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164496056002001
  • Tiessen-Raaphorst, A. (2016). Running across Europe: The rise and size of the largest sport markets. European Journal for Sport and Society, 13(1), 250-251. https://doi.org/10.1080/16138171.2016.1226032
  • Walraven, M., Bijmolt, T., Koning, R., & Los, B. (2016). Benchmarking sports sponsorship performance: Efficiency assessment with data envelopment analysis. Journal of Sport Management, 30(4), 411-426. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2015-0117
  • Wang, J. J., Wann, D. L., Lu, Z., & Zhang, J. J. (2018). Self-expression through sport participation: Exploring participant desired self-image. European Sport Management Quarterly, 18(5), 583-606. https://doi:10.1080/16184742.2018.1446994
  • Widaman, K. F. & Thompson, J. S. (2003). On specifying the null model for incremental fit indices in structural equation modeling. Psychological Methods, 8(1), 16-37. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.8.1.16
  • Wu, M. H. & Liu, C. C. (2017). The influences of motivations, past experiences, destination image, event image, satisfaction and intentions on participation in Taiwan road running events. The Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning, 13(1), 26-38.
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  • Yurdugül, H. (2007). The effects of different correlation types on goodness-of-fit indices in first order and second order factor analysis for multiple choice test data. Elementary Education Online, 6(1), 154-179.
Toplam 73 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Spor Faaliyetleri Yönetimi
Bölüm Leisure & Sport Management
Yazarlar

Orçun Ocakoğlu 0000-0002-0905-2785

Sema Alay Özgül 0000-0002-8329-0028

Ünal Karlı 0000-0002-4497-4443

Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Nisan 2025
Gönderilme Tarihi 31 Ekim 2024
Kabul Tarihi 31 Aralık 2024
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2025 Cilt: 16 Sayı: 1

Kaynak Göster

APA Ocakoğlu, O., Alay Özgül, S., & Karlı, Ü. (2025). Adaptation of Sport Event Image Scale to Turkish Culture: A Validity and Reliability Study. Pamukkale Journal of Sport Sciences, 16(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.54141/psbd.1577086
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