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Adaptation of the Self-Control Strategies Scale to Turkish and Evaluation of Psychometric Properties

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 8 Sayı: 2, 391 - 408, 30.12.2024

Saadet Öztürk , Mehmet Dinç

https://doi.org/10.54535/rep.1569325

Öz

Self-control was initially defined as behavioral inhibition. However, researchers have since recognized that strategies beyond behavioral inhibition are also required. This study aims to adapt the Self-Control Strategies Scale, developed to measure the broader theoretical structure of self-control beyond behavioral inhibition, into Turkish and to examine its psychometric properties. The study was conducted with 477 university students aged between 18 and 31. The confirmatory factor analysis indicates that the 33-item version of the scale shows good fit. Convergent validity analysis involved using the Multidimensional Self-Control Scale and the General Procrastination Scale. It was found that behavioral inhibition remains the strongest predictor of self-control, followed by Pre-Commitment, Reward, and Cognitive Change. General Procrastination is only predicted by Behavioral Inhibition and Pre-Commitment. Reliability analyses of the scale were conducted using McDonald’s Omega, test-retest reliability, and item-total correlations. All subscales, except for the Pre-Commitment subscale, have a reliability level above .70. In conclusion, the scale is valid and reliable for use in research conducted in Türkiye. However, the reliability level of the Pre-Commitment subscale should be considered when interpreting the results. This study also provides insights into the skills that should be acquired in self-control enhancement interventions.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Behavioral Inhibition Self-Control Self-Control Strategies Self-Regulation Willpower

Kaynakça

  • Adriaanse, M. A., Kroese, F. M., Gillebaart, M., and de Ridder, D. T. D. (2014). Effortless inhibition: habit mediates the relation between self-control and unhealthy snack consumption. Front. Psychol. 5:444. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014. 00444
  • Ainslie, G. (1975). Specious reward: a behavioral theory of impulsiveness and impulse control. Psychological Bullettin, 82, 463–496. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076860
  • Alberts, H. J., Thewissen, R., & Middelweerd, M. (2013). Accepting or suppressing the desire to eat: Investigating the short-term effects of acceptance-based craving regulation. Eating Behaviors, 14(3), 405-409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2013.06.008
  • Ariely, D., & Wertenbroch, K. (2002). Procrastination, Deadlines, and Performance: Self-Control by Precommitment. Psychological Science, 13(3), 219-224. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00441
  • Awang, Z. (2012). A Handbook on SEM Structural Equation Modelling: SEM Using AMOS Graphic (5th ed.). Kota Baru: Universiti Teknologi Mara Kelantan.
  • Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1252-1265. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.74.5.1252
  • Cobb-Clark, D. A., Dahmann, S. C., Kamhöfer, D. A., & Schildberg-Hörisch, H. (2022). The predictive power of self-control for life outcomes. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 197, 725-744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2022.02.028
  • Çakıcı, D.Ç. (2003). Examination of general procrastination and academic procrastination behaviors in high school and university students (Master's thesis). Ankara University Institute of Educational Sciences, Ankara
  • Çokluk, Ö., Şekercioğlu, G., & Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2012). Sosyal bilimler için çok değişkenli istatistik: SPSS ve LISREL uygulamaları (2. Baskı). [Multivariate statistics for social sciences: SPSS and LISREL applications (2nd ed.)]. Pegem Akademi.
  • Duckworth, A. L., & Seligman, M. E. (2005). Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents. Psychological science, 16(12), 939–944. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01641.x
  • Duckworth, A. L., Gendler, T. S., & Gross, J. J. (2016). Situational strategies for self-control. Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 11(1), 35–55. https://doi. org/10.1177/1745691615623247
  • Elfhag, K., & Morey, L. C. (2008). Personality traits and eating behavior in the obese: poor self-control in emotional and external eating but personality assets in restrained eating. Eating Behaviour, 9, 285–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2007.10.003
  • Ercoşkun, M. H. (2016). Adaptation of Self-Control and Self-Management Scale (SCMS) into Turkish culture: A study on reliability and validity. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 16, 1125-1145. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2016.4.2725
  • Ford, J. A., & Blumenstein, L. (2013). Self-control and substance use among college students. Journal of Drug Issues, 43(1), 56-68. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022042612462216
  • Forman, E. M., Hoffman, K. L., McGrath, K. B., Herbert, J. D., Brandsma, L. L., & Lowe, M. R. (2007). A comparison of acceptance and control-based strategies for coping with food cravings: An analog study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2372–2386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.04.004
  • Fujita, K. (2011). On conceptualizing self-control as more than the effortful inhibition of impulses. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15(4), 352-366. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1088868311411165
  • George, D., & Mallery, P. (2003). SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference. 11.0 update. (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
  • Gottfredson, M. (2017, July 27). Self-Control Theory and Crime. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Criminology. Retrieved 12 Aug. 2024, from https://oxfordre.com/criminology/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264079-e-252.
  • Gülüm, İ., & Tığrak, A. (2022). Çok boyutlu özdenetim ölçeği Türkçe formunun psikometrik özellikleri [Psychometric properties of the Turkish form of the Multidimensional Self-Control Scale]. Nesne Dergisi [Nesne Journal] 10(23), 89 – 104. https://doi.org/10.7816/nesne-10-23-06
  • Hofmann, W., Luhmann, M., Fisher, R. R., Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2014). Yes, but are they happy? Effects of trait self‐control on affective well-being and life satisfaction. Journal of Personality, 82(4), 265-277. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/jopy.12050
  • Hofmann, W., Kotabe, H. P., Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2015). Desire and desire regulation. In W. Hofmann & L. F. Nordgren (Eds.), The psychology of desire (pp. 61–81). The Guilford Press.
  • Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural equation modeling: a multidisciplinary journal, 6(1), 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
  • Jasinska, A. J., Yasuda, M., Burant, C. F., Gregor, N., Khatri, S., Sweet, M., & Falk, E. B. (2012). Impulsivity and inhibitory control deficits are associated with unhealthy eating in young adults. Appetite, 59, 738–747. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.appet.2012.08.001
  • Karademir, Ç. (2023). The Relationship between Self-Control and General Procrastination in University Students: The Mediating Role of Optimism. The Universal Academic Research Journal, 5(3), 182-197. https://doi.org/10.55236/tuara.1345561
  • Katzir, M., Baldwin, M., Werner, K. M., & Hofmann, W. (2021). Moving beyond inhibition: Capturing a broader scope of the self-control construct with the Self-Control Strategy Scale (SCSS). Journal of Personality Assessment, 103(6), 762-776. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2021.1883627
  • Kim, J., Hong, H., Lee, J., & Hyun, M. H. (2017). Effects of time perspective and self-control on procrastination and Internet addiction. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 6(2), 229-236. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.6.2017.017
  • Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equations modeling ( 2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
  • Luoma, J.B., Hayes, S.C. ve Walser, R.D. (2007). Learning ACT: An acceptance & commitment therapy skills-training manual for therapists. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger & Reno, NV: Context Press.
  • Magen, E., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Harnessing the need for immediate gratification: cognitive reconstrual modulates the reward value of temptations. Emotion, 7(2), 415–428. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.415
  • Mezo, P. G. (2009). The Self-Control and Self-Management scale (SCMS): Development of an adaptive self-regulatory coping skills instrument. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 31(2), 83–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-008-9104-2
  • Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. L. (1989). Delay of Gratification in Children. Science, 244(4907), 933–938. https://doi.org/ 10.1126/science.2658056
  • Mischel, W. (2014). The marshmallow test: Mastering self-control. Little, Brown and Company.
  • Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Poulton, R., Roberts, B. W., Ross, S., Sears, M. R., Thomson, W. M., & Caspi, A. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(7), 2693–2698. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1010076108
  • Nebioglu, M., Konuk, N., Akbaba, S. & Eroglu, Y. (2012). The Investigation of Validity and Reliability of the Turkish Version of the Brief Self-Control Scale. Klinik Psikofarmakoloji Bülteni-Bulletin of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 22(4), 340-351. https://doi.org/10.5455/bcp.20120911042732
  • Nilsen, F. A., Bang, H., Boe, O., Martinsen, Ø. L., Lang-Ree, O. C. ve Røysamb, E. (2020). The Multidimensional Self-Control Scale (MSCS): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment, 32(11), 1057–1074. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000950
  • Przepiórka, A., Błachnio, A., & Siu, N. Y. F. (2019). The relationships between self-efficacy, self-control, chronotype, procrastination and sleep problems in young adults. Chronobiology International, 36(8), 1025–1035. https://doi.org/10.1080/07420528.2019.1607370
  • Ramzi, F., & Saed, O. (2019). The roles of self-regulation and self-control in procrastination. Psychology and Behavioral Sciences International Journal, 13(3), 555-863. https://doi.org/10.19080/PBSIJ.2019.13.555863
  • de Ridder, D. T., Lensvelt-Mulders, G., Finkenauer, C., Stok, F. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2012). Taking stock of self-control: A meta-analysis of how trait self-control relates to a wide range of behaviors. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16(1), 76-99. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868311418749
  • Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2004). A beginner's guide to structural equation modeling. psychology press.
  • Seçer, İ. (2015). Psikolojik Test Geliştirme ve Uyarlama: SPSS ve Lisrel Uygulamaları [Psychological Test Development and Adaptation: SPSS and LISREL Applications]. Anı Yayıncılık.
  • Strosahl, K.D., Hayes, S.C., Wilson, K.G. ve Gifford, E.V. (2004). An ACT Primer: core therapy processes, intervention, strategies, and therapist competencies. In A practical guide to acceptance and commitment therapy (pp. 31-58). Springer, Boston, MA.
  • Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: a meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bullettin, 133, 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65
  • Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. L. (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of personality, 72(2), 271–324. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3506.2004.00263.x
  • Trope, Y., & Fishbach, A. (2000). Counteractive self-control in overcoming temptation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(4), 493–506. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.4.493

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 8 Sayı: 2, 391 - 408, 30.12.2024

Saadet Öztürk , Mehmet Dinç

https://doi.org/10.54535/rep.1569325

Öz

Kaynakça

  • Adriaanse, M. A., Kroese, F. M., Gillebaart, M., and de Ridder, D. T. D. (2014). Effortless inhibition: habit mediates the relation between self-control and unhealthy snack consumption. Front. Psychol. 5:444. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014. 00444
  • Ainslie, G. (1975). Specious reward: a behavioral theory of impulsiveness and impulse control. Psychological Bullettin, 82, 463–496. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076860
  • Alberts, H. J., Thewissen, R., & Middelweerd, M. (2013). Accepting or suppressing the desire to eat: Investigating the short-term effects of acceptance-based craving regulation. Eating Behaviors, 14(3), 405-409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2013.06.008
  • Ariely, D., & Wertenbroch, K. (2002). Procrastination, Deadlines, and Performance: Self-Control by Precommitment. Psychological Science, 13(3), 219-224. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00441
  • Awang, Z. (2012). A Handbook on SEM Structural Equation Modelling: SEM Using AMOS Graphic (5th ed.). Kota Baru: Universiti Teknologi Mara Kelantan.
  • Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1252-1265. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.74.5.1252
  • Cobb-Clark, D. A., Dahmann, S. C., Kamhöfer, D. A., & Schildberg-Hörisch, H. (2022). The predictive power of self-control for life outcomes. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 197, 725-744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2022.02.028
  • Çakıcı, D.Ç. (2003). Examination of general procrastination and academic procrastination behaviors in high school and university students (Master's thesis). Ankara University Institute of Educational Sciences, Ankara
  • Çokluk, Ö., Şekercioğlu, G., & Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2012). Sosyal bilimler için çok değişkenli istatistik: SPSS ve LISREL uygulamaları (2. Baskı). [Multivariate statistics for social sciences: SPSS and LISREL applications (2nd ed.)]. Pegem Akademi.
  • Duckworth, A. L., & Seligman, M. E. (2005). Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents. Psychological science, 16(12), 939–944. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01641.x
  • Duckworth, A. L., Gendler, T. S., & Gross, J. J. (2016). Situational strategies for self-control. Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 11(1), 35–55. https://doi. org/10.1177/1745691615623247
  • Elfhag, K., & Morey, L. C. (2008). Personality traits and eating behavior in the obese: poor self-control in emotional and external eating but personality assets in restrained eating. Eating Behaviour, 9, 285–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2007.10.003
  • Ercoşkun, M. H. (2016). Adaptation of Self-Control and Self-Management Scale (SCMS) into Turkish culture: A study on reliability and validity. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 16, 1125-1145. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2016.4.2725
  • Ford, J. A., & Blumenstein, L. (2013). Self-control and substance use among college students. Journal of Drug Issues, 43(1), 56-68. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022042612462216
  • Forman, E. M., Hoffman, K. L., McGrath, K. B., Herbert, J. D., Brandsma, L. L., & Lowe, M. R. (2007). A comparison of acceptance and control-based strategies for coping with food cravings: An analog study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2372–2386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.04.004
  • Fujita, K. (2011). On conceptualizing self-control as more than the effortful inhibition of impulses. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15(4), 352-366. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1088868311411165
  • George, D., & Mallery, P. (2003). SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference. 11.0 update. (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
  • Gottfredson, M. (2017, July 27). Self-Control Theory and Crime. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Criminology. Retrieved 12 Aug. 2024, from https://oxfordre.com/criminology/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264079-e-252.
  • Gülüm, İ., & Tığrak, A. (2022). Çok boyutlu özdenetim ölçeği Türkçe formunun psikometrik özellikleri [Psychometric properties of the Turkish form of the Multidimensional Self-Control Scale]. Nesne Dergisi [Nesne Journal] 10(23), 89 – 104. https://doi.org/10.7816/nesne-10-23-06
  • Hofmann, W., Luhmann, M., Fisher, R. R., Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2014). Yes, but are they happy? Effects of trait self‐control on affective well-being and life satisfaction. Journal of Personality, 82(4), 265-277. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/jopy.12050
  • Hofmann, W., Kotabe, H. P., Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2015). Desire and desire regulation. In W. Hofmann & L. F. Nordgren (Eds.), The psychology of desire (pp. 61–81). The Guilford Press.
  • Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural equation modeling: a multidisciplinary journal, 6(1), 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
  • Jasinska, A. J., Yasuda, M., Burant, C. F., Gregor, N., Khatri, S., Sweet, M., & Falk, E. B. (2012). Impulsivity and inhibitory control deficits are associated with unhealthy eating in young adults. Appetite, 59, 738–747. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.appet.2012.08.001
  • Karademir, Ç. (2023). The Relationship between Self-Control and General Procrastination in University Students: The Mediating Role of Optimism. The Universal Academic Research Journal, 5(3), 182-197. https://doi.org/10.55236/tuara.1345561
  • Katzir, M., Baldwin, M., Werner, K. M., & Hofmann, W. (2021). Moving beyond inhibition: Capturing a broader scope of the self-control construct with the Self-Control Strategy Scale (SCSS). Journal of Personality Assessment, 103(6), 762-776. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2021.1883627
  • Kim, J., Hong, H., Lee, J., & Hyun, M. H. (2017). Effects of time perspective and self-control on procrastination and Internet addiction. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 6(2), 229-236. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.6.2017.017
  • Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equations modeling ( 2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
  • Luoma, J.B., Hayes, S.C. ve Walser, R.D. (2007). Learning ACT: An acceptance & commitment therapy skills-training manual for therapists. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger & Reno, NV: Context Press.
  • Magen, E., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Harnessing the need for immediate gratification: cognitive reconstrual modulates the reward value of temptations. Emotion, 7(2), 415–428. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.415
  • Mezo, P. G. (2009). The Self-Control and Self-Management scale (SCMS): Development of an adaptive self-regulatory coping skills instrument. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 31(2), 83–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-008-9104-2
  • Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. L. (1989). Delay of Gratification in Children. Science, 244(4907), 933–938. https://doi.org/ 10.1126/science.2658056
  • Mischel, W. (2014). The marshmallow test: Mastering self-control. Little, Brown and Company.
  • Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Poulton, R., Roberts, B. W., Ross, S., Sears, M. R., Thomson, W. M., & Caspi, A. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(7), 2693–2698. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1010076108
  • Nebioglu, M., Konuk, N., Akbaba, S. & Eroglu, Y. (2012). The Investigation of Validity and Reliability of the Turkish Version of the Brief Self-Control Scale. Klinik Psikofarmakoloji Bülteni-Bulletin of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 22(4), 340-351. https://doi.org/10.5455/bcp.20120911042732
  • Nilsen, F. A., Bang, H., Boe, O., Martinsen, Ø. L., Lang-Ree, O. C. ve Røysamb, E. (2020). The Multidimensional Self-Control Scale (MSCS): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment, 32(11), 1057–1074. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000950
  • Przepiórka, A., Błachnio, A., & Siu, N. Y. F. (2019). The relationships between self-efficacy, self-control, chronotype, procrastination and sleep problems in young adults. Chronobiology International, 36(8), 1025–1035. https://doi.org/10.1080/07420528.2019.1607370
  • Ramzi, F., & Saed, O. (2019). The roles of self-regulation and self-control in procrastination. Psychology and Behavioral Sciences International Journal, 13(3), 555-863. https://doi.org/10.19080/PBSIJ.2019.13.555863
  • de Ridder, D. T., Lensvelt-Mulders, G., Finkenauer, C., Stok, F. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2012). Taking stock of self-control: A meta-analysis of how trait self-control relates to a wide range of behaviors. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16(1), 76-99. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868311418749
  • Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2004). A beginner's guide to structural equation modeling. psychology press.
  • Seçer, İ. (2015). Psikolojik Test Geliştirme ve Uyarlama: SPSS ve Lisrel Uygulamaları [Psychological Test Development and Adaptation: SPSS and LISREL Applications]. Anı Yayıncılık.
  • Strosahl, K.D., Hayes, S.C., Wilson, K.G. ve Gifford, E.V. (2004). An ACT Primer: core therapy processes, intervention, strategies, and therapist competencies. In A practical guide to acceptance and commitment therapy (pp. 31-58). Springer, Boston, MA.
  • Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: a meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bullettin, 133, 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65
  • Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. L. (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of personality, 72(2), 271–324. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3506.2004.00263.x
  • Trope, Y., & Fishbach, A. (2000). Counteractive self-control in overcoming temptation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(4), 493–506. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.4.493
Toplam 44 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Kişilik ve Bireysel Farklılıklar
Bölüm Articles
Yazarlar

Saadet Öztürk 0000-0002-1772-7324

Mehmet Dinç 0000-0001-9544-8999

Erken Görünüm Tarihi 25 Aralık 2024
Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Aralık 2024
Gönderilme Tarihi 21 Ekim 2024
Kabul Tarihi 1 Aralık 2024
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2024 Cilt: 8 Sayı: 2

Kaynak Göster

APA Öztürk, S., & Dinç, M. (2024). Adaptation of the Self-Control Strategies Scale to Turkish and Evaluation of Psychometric Properties. Research on Education and Psychology, 8(2), 391-408. https://doi.org/10.54535/rep.1569325
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