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Middle Powers Between the West and the “Rest”: Turkey During the Russian War on Ukraine

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 22 Sayı: 86, 5 - 25, 06.06.2025

Ziya Öniş , Yalkun Uluyol

https://doi.org/10.33458/uidergisi.1667320
Cited By: 1

Öz

Turkey is a middle power that has been illustrating proactive foreign policy over the last decades with a strong motivation for “strategic autonomy.” Turkish foreign policy during the Russian invasion of Ukraine is an interesting case in which to examine and understand the role of middle powers in the changing international order. Especially in the context of widening gaps between the geopolitical positioning of the West, led by the United States and the European Union, and the “Rest,” increasingly represented by BRICS economies, many countries are struggling in between. The paper highlights the positioning of Turkey during the Russian War on Ukraine and argues that it is much closer to those of major BRICS and most countries in the “Global South” than its traditional Western Allies. We argue that the reasons that enabled Turkey to maneuver such proactive foreign policy during the War can be explained by the intertwined effect of the manifestation of “strategic autonomy” in the decision-making, highly centralized populist leadership at home, and the growing room at the international and the regional environment for middle power activism.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Post-Western Order BRICS Global South Foreign Policy Strategic Autonomy

Kaynakça

  • Aktürk, Ş. 2020. Turkey’s Grand Strategy and the Third Power: A Realist Proposal. Perceptions: Journal of International Relations, 25, 2: 152-177.
  • Alami, I., Dixon, A. D., and Mawdsley, E. 2021. State Capitalism and the New Global D/development Regime. Antipode 53, 5: 1294–1318.
  • Altunisik, M. 2024. Turkey’s Foreign Policy toward Israel: Co-existing of Ideology and Pragmatism in the Age of Global and Regional Shifts. International Politics, 1-24.
  • Altunışık, M. B. 2022. New Turn in Turkey’s Foreign Policy in the Middle East: Regional and Domestic Insecurities. Istituto Affari Internazionali.
  • Anwar, D. F. 2022. Indonesia’s Hedging Plus Policy in the Face of China’s Rise and the US-China Rivalry in the Indo-Pacific Region. The Pacific Review 36, 2: 351-377.
  • Appel, H. 2024. Competing Narratives of the Russia–Ukraine War: Why the West hasn't Convinced the Rest. Global Policy 15, 4: 559-569.
  • Aydın, M. 2020. Grand Strategies in and for Turkish Foreign Policy: Lessons Learned from History, Geography and Practice. Perceptions: Journal of International Affairs 25, 2: 203-226.
  • Baba, G. And Erşen, E. 2023. Turkey and the Greater Eurasian Partnership: Opportunities and Challenges in ‘Amalgated Regionalism’. Uluslararası İlişkiler, 20, 79: 123-141.
  • Balta, E. 2019. From Geopolitical Competition to Strategic Partnership: Turkey and Russia after the Cold War. Uluslararası İlişkiler 16, 63: 69-86.
  • Barrinha, A. 2014. The Ambitious Insulator: Revisiting Turkey’s Position in Regional Security Complex Theory. Mediterranean Politics 19, 2: 165–182.
  • Bayer, R. and Keyman, E. F. 2012. Turkey: An Emerging Hub of Globalization and Internationalist Humanitarian Global Actor. Globalizations 9, 1: 73-90.
  • Bollfrass, A. K., and Herzog, S. 2022. The War in Ukraine and Global Nuclear Order. Survival 64, 4: 7–32.
  • Boon, H. T. 2023. Making Sense of China’s Crisis Resolution Role in Ukraine. Australian Journal of International Affairs 77, 4: 423-429.
  • Byman, D. 2024. A War They Both Are Losing: Israel, Hamas and the Plight of Gaza. Survival 66, 3: 61-78.
  • Chan, Y. 2020. Developments in China-Turkey Relations: A View from China. Critical Sociology 46, 4-5: 777-787.
  • Chivvis, C. S., Coşkun, A., Geeghan, and Breiner, B. 2023. Türkiye in the Emerging World Order. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
  • Çolakoğlu, E. 2024. Food Insecurity in the Middle East, the Black Sea Grain Initiative, and Türkiye. Güvenlik Stratejileri Dergisi 20, 47: 63-82.
  • Crisp, J. 2024. Turkey Applies to be First Nato Member to Join Russia’s G7 rival. The Telegraph. September 4, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2024/09/04/turkey-nato-russia-g7-brics-rival- china-us/ (accessed September 5, 2024)
  • Dal, E. P. 2016. Conceptualising and Testing the ‘Emerging Regional Power’ of Turkey in the Shifting International Order. Third World Quarterly 37, 8: 1425–1453.
  • Dal, E. P. 2019. Status-seeking Policies of Middle Powers in Status Clubs: the Case of Turkey in the G20. Contemporary Politics 25, 5: 586–602.
  • Dipama, S., and Dal, E. P. 2024. Assessing the Impact of Turkey’s Quest for Status Since the 2000s on Foreign Policy Change: Transformational or Transactional? Uluslararası İlişkiler 21, 81: 77-93.
  • Doğan-Akkaş, B. 2023 Erdoğan’s Gulf Visit Heralds a New Regional Approach. Middle East Council Blog. July 23, https://mecouncil.org/blog_posts/erdogans-gulf-visit-heralds-new-regional- approach (accessed July 25, 2024)
  • Ersen, E. and Köstem, S. 2019. Turkey’s Pivot to Central Asia: Geopolitics and Foreign Policy in a Changing World Order. London and New York, Routledge.
  • Esen, B. and Gümüşçü, Ş.2023. How Erdoğan’s Populism Won Again. Journal of Democracy 34, 3: 21-32.
  • Esen, B. and Gümüşçü, Ş, 2016. Rising Competitive Authoritarianism in Turkey. Third World Quarterly 37, 9: 1581-1606.
  • Flockhart, T. 2016. The Coming Multi-order World. Contemporary Security Policy 37, 1: 3–30.
  • Göçer, D., and Ergenç, C. 2023. Political informality, state transition and Belt and Road Initiative: the case of Turkey’s logistics sector. Asia Europe Journal 22: 43-61.
  • Güneylioğlu, M. 2022. Turkey-China Rapprochement in the Context of BRI: a Geoeconomic Perspective. Australian Journal of International Affairs 76, 5: 546-574.
  • Gürel, B., and Kozluca, M. 2022. Chinese Investment in Turkey: The Belt and Road Initiative, Rising Expectations and Ground Realities. European Review 30, 6: 806–834.
  • Habiyaremye, A. and Oğuzlu, T. 2014. Engagement with Africa: Making Sense of Turkey’s Turkey’s Approach in the Context of Growing East West Rivalry. Uluslararası İlişkiler 11, 41: 65-85.
  • Haugham, L. 2019. Turkish Foreign Policy under Erdoğan: A Change in International Orientation? Comparative Strategy 38, 3: 206-223.
  • Heine, J and Rodrigues, T. 2023. Brazil is Ukraine’s Best Bet for Peace. Foreign Policy, May 2, https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/05/02/brazil-russia-ukraine-war-lula-diplomacy-active-nonalignment/ (accessed July 25, 2024)
  • Hurrell, A. 1986. The Quest for Autonomy. University of Oxford.
  • Jacob, H. 2023. Can India Bring Russia and Ukraine to the Table? What New Delhi’s Diplomacy Can and Cannot Achieve. Foreign Affairs, August 2, www.foreign affairs.com/india/can-india-bring- russia-and-ukraine-table (accessed July 25, 2024)
  • Kaczmarski, M. 2015. Russia-China Relations in the Post-crisis International Order. Routledge.
  • Kardaş, Ş. 2013. Turkey: A Regional Power Facing a Changing International System. Turkish Studies 14, 4: 637–660.
  • Karim, M. F. 2018. Middle Power, Status-seeking and Role Conceptions: The Cases of Indonesia and South Korea. Australian Journal of International Affairs 72, 4: 343–363.
  • Kaşlılar, M. M. 2023. Rusya-Ukrayna Savaşı’nın Birinci Yılı ve Türkiye (The First Year of the Russia-Ukraine War and Turkey). Türk Dış Politikası Araştırma Merkezi (TUDPAM)
  • Kirshner, J. 2014. American Power after the Financial Crisis. In American Power after the Financial Crisis. Cornell University Press.
  • Köstem, S. 2018. The Political Economy of Turkish-Russian Relations: Dynamics of Asymmetric Interdependence. Perceptions: Journal of International Affairs 23, 2: 10-32.
  • Köstem, S. 2021. Russian-Turkish Co-operation in Syria: Geopolitical Alignments with Limits. Cambridge Review of International Affairs 34, 6: 795-817.
  • Köstem, S. 2022, Managed Regional Rivalry between Russia and Turkey after the Annexation of Crimea. Third World Quarterly 74, 9: 1657-1675.
  • Kutlay, M. and Öniş, Z. 2021a. Turkish Foreign Policy in a post-Western Order: Strategic Autonomy or New Forms of Dependence? International Affairs 97, 4: 1085-1104.
  • Kutlay, M. and Öniş, Z. 2021b. Understanding Oscillations in Turkish Foreign Policy: Pathways to Unusual Middle Power Activism. Third World Quarterly 42, 12: 2051-3069.
  • Legler, T., Turzi, M., and Tzili-Apango, E. 2020. Advancing Autonomy? Chinese Influence on Regional Governance in Latin America. In China–Latin America Relations in the 21st Century: The Dual Complexities of Opportunities and Challenges, ed. R. Bernal-Meza and Xing. L. Palgrave Macmillan Cham: 27–53.
  • Levaggi, A.G. and Donnelli, F. 2021. Turkey’s Changing Engagement with the Global South. International Affairs 97, 4: 1105-1124.
  • Machado, D. 2022. China’s Internalization of the Liberal International Order. International Journal of China Studies 13, 2: 181–213.
  • Mariani, B. 2023. China’s Peace Efforts in Ukraine, LSE blog, London School of Economics July 26, https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/cff/2023/07/26/chinas-peace-efforts-in-ukraine (accessed September 25, 2024)
  • Menon, S. 2023. Out of Alignment: What the War in Ukraine has Revealed about the Non-Western Powers. Foreign Affairs, February 2, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/world/out-alignment-war-in- ukraine-non-western-powers-shivshankar-menon (accessed July 5, 2024)
  • Michalski, A., Brommesson, D., and Ekengren, A. M. 2024. Small states and the dilemma of geopolitics: role change in Finland and Sweden. International Affairs 100, 1: 139-157.
  • Müftüler-Baç, M. 2020. Turkey’s Grand Strategy in the Context of Global and Regional Challenges. Perceptions: Journal of International Affairs 25, 2: 178-202.
  • Oğuzlu, T. 2020. Turkish Foreign Policy in a Changing World Order All Azimuth: A Journal of Foreign Policy and Peace 9, 1: 127-139.
  • Öniş, Z and Kutlay, M. 2021. The Anatomy of Turkey’s Heterodox Crisis: The Interplay of Domestic Politics and Global Dynamics. Turkish Studies 22, 4: 499-529.
  • Öniş, Z and Yalikun, M. 2021. Emerging Partnership in a Post-Western World? The Political Economy of China-Turkey Relations. Southeast European and Black Sea Studies 21, 4: 507-529.
  • Öniş, Z. 2023a. Historic Missed Opportunities and Prospects for Renewal: Turkey-EU Relations in a Post-Western Order. Turkish Studies 24: 3-4: 691-713.
  • Öniş, Z. 2023b. The West versus the Rest: Russian Invasion of Ukraine and the Crisis of ‘Post-Western’ Order. Transatlantic Policy Quarterly 21, 4: 34-52.
  • Öniş, Z. 2023c. Turkey’s New Presidential Regime: Fragility, Resilience, Reversibility. Reflektif: Journal of Social Sciences 4, 1: 159-179.
  • Özdemir, A. 2023. The Impact of the Russian War on Türkiye’s Foreign Trade. Insight Turkey 25, 2: 121-138.
  • Özekin, M. K., and Sune, E. 2023. Contesting Hegemony: The Rise of BRICS and the Crisis of US-led Western Hegemony in the MENA Region. The Korean Journal of International Studies 21, 3: 409-446.
  • Öztiğ, L. I. 2023. A Comparative Analysis of Turkish Foreign Policy on the Azerbaijan-Armenia Conflicts (1988-2020). Insight Turkey 25, 2: 139-162.
  • Rossiter, A., and Cannon, B. J. 2022. Turkey’s Rise as a Drone Power: Trial by Fire. Defense & Security Analysis 38, 2: 210–229.
  • Schenoni, L. L., and Leiva, D. 2021. Dual Hegemony: Brazil Between the United States and China. In Hegemonic Transition, ed. F. Böller and W. Werner. London: Springer: 233-255.
  • Schirm, S. A. 2023. Alternative World Orders? Russia’s Ukraine War and the Domestic Politics of the BRICS. The International Spectator 58, 3: 55-73.
  • Soyaltin-Colella, D. and Demiyol, T.2023. Unusual Middle Power Activism and Regime Survival: Turkey’s Drone Warfare and its Regime-Boosting Effects. Third World Quarterly 44, 4: 724-743.
  • Stuenkel, O. 2016. Post-Western World: How Emerging Powers are Remaking the Global Order. Malden, MA: Polity Press.
  • Üngör, Ç. 2019. Heading towards the East? Sino-Turkish relations after the July 15 coup attempt. In Turkey’s Pivot to Eurasia. Routledge: 64-78
  • Wulf, H., and Debiel, T. 2015. India’s ‘Strategic Autonomy’ and the Club Model of Global Governance: Why the Indian BRICS Engagement Warrants a Less Ambiguous Foreign Policy Doctrine. Strategic Analysis 39, 1: 27–43.
  • Yan, X. 2018. Chinese Values vs. Liberalism: What Ideology Will Shape the International Normative Order? The Chinese Journal of International Politics 11, 1: 1–22.
  • Yanık, L. 2023. Turkey and the Russian Invasion of Ukraine: An Interplay of Bloc (De)Formation, Recognition and Asymmetric Interdependencies? Globalizations 20, 7: 1214-1226.

Middle Powers Between the West and the “Rest”: Turkey During the Russian War on Ukraine

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 22 Sayı: 86, 5 - 25, 06.06.2025

Ziya Öniş , Yalkun Uluyol

https://doi.org/10.33458/uidergisi.1667320
Cited By: 1

Öz

Turkey is a middle power that has been illustrating proactive foreign policy over the last decades with a strong motivation for “strategic autonomy.” Turkish foreign policy during the Russian invasion of Ukraine is an interesting case in which to examine and understand the role of middle powers in the changing international order. Especially in the context of widening gaps between the geopolitical positioning of the West, led by the United States and the European Union, and the “Rest,” increasingly represented by BRICS economies, many countries are struggling in between. The paper highlights the positioning of Turkey during the Russian War on Ukraine and argues that it is much closer to those of major BRICS and most countries in the “Global South” than its traditional Western Allies. We argue that the reasons that enabled Turkey to maneuver such proactive foreign policy during the War can be explained by the intertwined effect of the manifestation of “strategic autonomy” in the decision-making, highly centralized populist leadership at home, and the growing room at the international and the regional environment for middle power activism.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Post-Western Order BRICS Global South Foreign Policy Strategic Autonomy

Kaynakça

  • Aktürk, Ş. 2020. Turkey’s Grand Strategy and the Third Power: A Realist Proposal. Perceptions: Journal of International Relations, 25, 2: 152-177.
  • Alami, I., Dixon, A. D., and Mawdsley, E. 2021. State Capitalism and the New Global D/development Regime. Antipode 53, 5: 1294–1318.
  • Altunisik, M. 2024. Turkey’s Foreign Policy toward Israel: Co-existing of Ideology and Pragmatism in the Age of Global and Regional Shifts. International Politics, 1-24.
  • Altunışık, M. B. 2022. New Turn in Turkey’s Foreign Policy in the Middle East: Regional and Domestic Insecurities. Istituto Affari Internazionali.
  • Anwar, D. F. 2022. Indonesia’s Hedging Plus Policy in the Face of China’s Rise and the US-China Rivalry in the Indo-Pacific Region. The Pacific Review 36, 2: 351-377.
  • Appel, H. 2024. Competing Narratives of the Russia–Ukraine War: Why the West hasn't Convinced the Rest. Global Policy 15, 4: 559-569.
  • Aydın, M. 2020. Grand Strategies in and for Turkish Foreign Policy: Lessons Learned from History, Geography and Practice. Perceptions: Journal of International Affairs 25, 2: 203-226.
  • Baba, G. And Erşen, E. 2023. Turkey and the Greater Eurasian Partnership: Opportunities and Challenges in ‘Amalgated Regionalism’. Uluslararası İlişkiler, 20, 79: 123-141.
  • Balta, E. 2019. From Geopolitical Competition to Strategic Partnership: Turkey and Russia after the Cold War. Uluslararası İlişkiler 16, 63: 69-86.
  • Barrinha, A. 2014. The Ambitious Insulator: Revisiting Turkey’s Position in Regional Security Complex Theory. Mediterranean Politics 19, 2: 165–182.
  • Bayer, R. and Keyman, E. F. 2012. Turkey: An Emerging Hub of Globalization and Internationalist Humanitarian Global Actor. Globalizations 9, 1: 73-90.
  • Bollfrass, A. K., and Herzog, S. 2022. The War in Ukraine and Global Nuclear Order. Survival 64, 4: 7–32.
  • Boon, H. T. 2023. Making Sense of China’s Crisis Resolution Role in Ukraine. Australian Journal of International Affairs 77, 4: 423-429.
  • Byman, D. 2024. A War They Both Are Losing: Israel, Hamas and the Plight of Gaza. Survival 66, 3: 61-78.
  • Chan, Y. 2020. Developments in China-Turkey Relations: A View from China. Critical Sociology 46, 4-5: 777-787.
  • Chivvis, C. S., Coşkun, A., Geeghan, and Breiner, B. 2023. Türkiye in the Emerging World Order. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
  • Çolakoğlu, E. 2024. Food Insecurity in the Middle East, the Black Sea Grain Initiative, and Türkiye. Güvenlik Stratejileri Dergisi 20, 47: 63-82.
  • Crisp, J. 2024. Turkey Applies to be First Nato Member to Join Russia’s G7 rival. The Telegraph. September 4, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2024/09/04/turkey-nato-russia-g7-brics-rival- china-us/ (accessed September 5, 2024)
  • Dal, E. P. 2016. Conceptualising and Testing the ‘Emerging Regional Power’ of Turkey in the Shifting International Order. Third World Quarterly 37, 8: 1425–1453.
  • Dal, E. P. 2019. Status-seeking Policies of Middle Powers in Status Clubs: the Case of Turkey in the G20. Contemporary Politics 25, 5: 586–602.
  • Dipama, S., and Dal, E. P. 2024. Assessing the Impact of Turkey’s Quest for Status Since the 2000s on Foreign Policy Change: Transformational or Transactional? Uluslararası İlişkiler 21, 81: 77-93.
  • Doğan-Akkaş, B. 2023 Erdoğan’s Gulf Visit Heralds a New Regional Approach. Middle East Council Blog. July 23, https://mecouncil.org/blog_posts/erdogans-gulf-visit-heralds-new-regional- approach (accessed July 25, 2024)
  • Ersen, E. and Köstem, S. 2019. Turkey’s Pivot to Central Asia: Geopolitics and Foreign Policy in a Changing World Order. London and New York, Routledge.
  • Esen, B. and Gümüşçü, Ş.2023. How Erdoğan’s Populism Won Again. Journal of Democracy 34, 3: 21-32.
  • Esen, B. and Gümüşçü, Ş, 2016. Rising Competitive Authoritarianism in Turkey. Third World Quarterly 37, 9: 1581-1606.
  • Flockhart, T. 2016. The Coming Multi-order World. Contemporary Security Policy 37, 1: 3–30.
  • Göçer, D., and Ergenç, C. 2023. Political informality, state transition and Belt and Road Initiative: the case of Turkey’s logistics sector. Asia Europe Journal 22: 43-61.
  • Güneylioğlu, M. 2022. Turkey-China Rapprochement in the Context of BRI: a Geoeconomic Perspective. Australian Journal of International Affairs 76, 5: 546-574.
  • Gürel, B., and Kozluca, M. 2022. Chinese Investment in Turkey: The Belt and Road Initiative, Rising Expectations and Ground Realities. European Review 30, 6: 806–834.
  • Habiyaremye, A. and Oğuzlu, T. 2014. Engagement with Africa: Making Sense of Turkey’s Turkey’s Approach in the Context of Growing East West Rivalry. Uluslararası İlişkiler 11, 41: 65-85.
  • Haugham, L. 2019. Turkish Foreign Policy under Erdoğan: A Change in International Orientation? Comparative Strategy 38, 3: 206-223.
  • Heine, J and Rodrigues, T. 2023. Brazil is Ukraine’s Best Bet for Peace. Foreign Policy, May 2, https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/05/02/brazil-russia-ukraine-war-lula-diplomacy-active-nonalignment/ (accessed July 25, 2024)
  • Hurrell, A. 1986. The Quest for Autonomy. University of Oxford.
  • Jacob, H. 2023. Can India Bring Russia and Ukraine to the Table? What New Delhi’s Diplomacy Can and Cannot Achieve. Foreign Affairs, August 2, www.foreign affairs.com/india/can-india-bring- russia-and-ukraine-table (accessed July 25, 2024)
  • Kaczmarski, M. 2015. Russia-China Relations in the Post-crisis International Order. Routledge.
  • Kardaş, Ş. 2013. Turkey: A Regional Power Facing a Changing International System. Turkish Studies 14, 4: 637–660.
  • Karim, M. F. 2018. Middle Power, Status-seeking and Role Conceptions: The Cases of Indonesia and South Korea. Australian Journal of International Affairs 72, 4: 343–363.
  • Kaşlılar, M. M. 2023. Rusya-Ukrayna Savaşı’nın Birinci Yılı ve Türkiye (The First Year of the Russia-Ukraine War and Turkey). Türk Dış Politikası Araştırma Merkezi (TUDPAM)
  • Kirshner, J. 2014. American Power after the Financial Crisis. In American Power after the Financial Crisis. Cornell University Press.
  • Köstem, S. 2018. The Political Economy of Turkish-Russian Relations: Dynamics of Asymmetric Interdependence. Perceptions: Journal of International Affairs 23, 2: 10-32.
  • Köstem, S. 2021. Russian-Turkish Co-operation in Syria: Geopolitical Alignments with Limits. Cambridge Review of International Affairs 34, 6: 795-817.
  • Köstem, S. 2022, Managed Regional Rivalry between Russia and Turkey after the Annexation of Crimea. Third World Quarterly 74, 9: 1657-1675.
  • Kutlay, M. and Öniş, Z. 2021a. Turkish Foreign Policy in a post-Western Order: Strategic Autonomy or New Forms of Dependence? International Affairs 97, 4: 1085-1104.
  • Kutlay, M. and Öniş, Z. 2021b. Understanding Oscillations in Turkish Foreign Policy: Pathways to Unusual Middle Power Activism. Third World Quarterly 42, 12: 2051-3069.
  • Legler, T., Turzi, M., and Tzili-Apango, E. 2020. Advancing Autonomy? Chinese Influence on Regional Governance in Latin America. In China–Latin America Relations in the 21st Century: The Dual Complexities of Opportunities and Challenges, ed. R. Bernal-Meza and Xing. L. Palgrave Macmillan Cham: 27–53.
  • Levaggi, A.G. and Donnelli, F. 2021. Turkey’s Changing Engagement with the Global South. International Affairs 97, 4: 1105-1124.
  • Machado, D. 2022. China’s Internalization of the Liberal International Order. International Journal of China Studies 13, 2: 181–213.
  • Mariani, B. 2023. China’s Peace Efforts in Ukraine, LSE blog, London School of Economics July 26, https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/cff/2023/07/26/chinas-peace-efforts-in-ukraine (accessed September 25, 2024)
  • Menon, S. 2023. Out of Alignment: What the War in Ukraine has Revealed about the Non-Western Powers. Foreign Affairs, February 2, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/world/out-alignment-war-in- ukraine-non-western-powers-shivshankar-menon (accessed July 5, 2024)
  • Michalski, A., Brommesson, D., and Ekengren, A. M. 2024. Small states and the dilemma of geopolitics: role change in Finland and Sweden. International Affairs 100, 1: 139-157.
  • Müftüler-Baç, M. 2020. Turkey’s Grand Strategy in the Context of Global and Regional Challenges. Perceptions: Journal of International Affairs 25, 2: 178-202.
  • Oğuzlu, T. 2020. Turkish Foreign Policy in a Changing World Order All Azimuth: A Journal of Foreign Policy and Peace 9, 1: 127-139.
  • Öniş, Z and Kutlay, M. 2021. The Anatomy of Turkey’s Heterodox Crisis: The Interplay of Domestic Politics and Global Dynamics. Turkish Studies 22, 4: 499-529.
  • Öniş, Z and Yalikun, M. 2021. Emerging Partnership in a Post-Western World? The Political Economy of China-Turkey Relations. Southeast European and Black Sea Studies 21, 4: 507-529.
  • Öniş, Z. 2023a. Historic Missed Opportunities and Prospects for Renewal: Turkey-EU Relations in a Post-Western Order. Turkish Studies 24: 3-4: 691-713.
  • Öniş, Z. 2023b. The West versus the Rest: Russian Invasion of Ukraine and the Crisis of ‘Post-Western’ Order. Transatlantic Policy Quarterly 21, 4: 34-52.
  • Öniş, Z. 2023c. Turkey’s New Presidential Regime: Fragility, Resilience, Reversibility. Reflektif: Journal of Social Sciences 4, 1: 159-179.
  • Özdemir, A. 2023. The Impact of the Russian War on Türkiye’s Foreign Trade. Insight Turkey 25, 2: 121-138.
  • Özekin, M. K., and Sune, E. 2023. Contesting Hegemony: The Rise of BRICS and the Crisis of US-led Western Hegemony in the MENA Region. The Korean Journal of International Studies 21, 3: 409-446.
  • Öztiğ, L. I. 2023. A Comparative Analysis of Turkish Foreign Policy on the Azerbaijan-Armenia Conflicts (1988-2020). Insight Turkey 25, 2: 139-162.
  • Rossiter, A., and Cannon, B. J. 2022. Turkey’s Rise as a Drone Power: Trial by Fire. Defense & Security Analysis 38, 2: 210–229.
  • Schenoni, L. L., and Leiva, D. 2021. Dual Hegemony: Brazil Between the United States and China. In Hegemonic Transition, ed. F. Böller and W. Werner. London: Springer: 233-255.
  • Schirm, S. A. 2023. Alternative World Orders? Russia’s Ukraine War and the Domestic Politics of the BRICS. The International Spectator 58, 3: 55-73.
  • Soyaltin-Colella, D. and Demiyol, T.2023. Unusual Middle Power Activism and Regime Survival: Turkey’s Drone Warfare and its Regime-Boosting Effects. Third World Quarterly 44, 4: 724-743.
  • Stuenkel, O. 2016. Post-Western World: How Emerging Powers are Remaking the Global Order. Malden, MA: Polity Press.
  • Üngör, Ç. 2019. Heading towards the East? Sino-Turkish relations after the July 15 coup attempt. In Turkey’s Pivot to Eurasia. Routledge: 64-78
  • Wulf, H., and Debiel, T. 2015. India’s ‘Strategic Autonomy’ and the Club Model of Global Governance: Why the Indian BRICS Engagement Warrants a Less Ambiguous Foreign Policy Doctrine. Strategic Analysis 39, 1: 27–43.
  • Yan, X. 2018. Chinese Values vs. Liberalism: What Ideology Will Shape the International Normative Order? The Chinese Journal of International Politics 11, 1: 1–22.
  • Yanık, L. 2023. Turkey and the Russian Invasion of Ukraine: An Interplay of Bloc (De)Formation, Recognition and Asymmetric Interdependencies? Globalizations 20, 7: 1214-1226.
Toplam 69 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Bölgesel Çalışmalar, Türk Dış Politikası
Bölüm Araştırma Makalesi
Yazarlar

Ziya Öniş 0000-0002-0129-2944

Yalkun Uluyol 0000-0001-6707-4424

Erken Görünüm Tarihi 28 Mart 2025
Yayımlanma Tarihi 6 Haziran 2025
Gönderilme Tarihi 12 Kasım 2024
Kabul Tarihi 27 Mart 2025
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2025 Cilt: 22 Sayı: 86

Kaynak Göster

APA Öniş, Z., & Uluyol, Y. (2025). Middle Powers Between the West and the “Rest”: Turkey During the Russian War on Ukraine. Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi, 22(86), 5-25. https://doi.org/10.33458/uidergisi.1667320
AMA Öniş Z, Uluyol Y. Middle Powers Between the West and the “Rest”: Turkey During the Russian War on Ukraine. uidergisi. Haziran 2025;22(86):5-25. doi:10.33458/uidergisi.1667320
Chicago Öniş, Ziya, ve Yalkun Uluyol. “Middle Powers Between the West and the ‘Rest’: Turkey During the Russian War on Ukraine”. Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi 22, sy. 86 (Haziran 2025): 5-25. https://doi.org/10.33458/uidergisi.1667320.
EndNote Öniş Z, Uluyol Y (01 Haziran 2025) Middle Powers Between the West and the “Rest”: Turkey During the Russian War on Ukraine. Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi 22 86 5–25.
IEEE Z. Öniş ve Y. Uluyol, “Middle Powers Between the West and the ‘Rest’: Turkey During the Russian War on Ukraine”, uidergisi, c. 22, sy. 86, ss. 5–25, 2025, doi: 10.33458/uidergisi.1667320.
ISNAD Öniş, Ziya - Uluyol, Yalkun. “Middle Powers Between the West and the ‘Rest’: Turkey During the Russian War on Ukraine”. Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi 22/86 (Haziran 2025), 5-25. https://doi.org/10.33458/uidergisi.1667320.
JAMA Öniş Z, Uluyol Y. Middle Powers Between the West and the “Rest”: Turkey During the Russian War on Ukraine. uidergisi. 2025;22:5–25.
MLA Öniş, Ziya ve Yalkun Uluyol. “Middle Powers Between the West and the ‘Rest’: Turkey During the Russian War on Ukraine”. Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi, c. 22, sy. 86, 2025, ss. 5-25, doi:10.33458/uidergisi.1667320.
Vancouver Öniş Z, Uluyol Y. Middle Powers Between the West and the “Rest”: Turkey During the Russian War on Ukraine. uidergisi. 2025;22(86):5-25.

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