Öz
This article frameworks a comparative investigation of the underlying causes and effects of ethnic separatist terrorism through the case studies of the IRA and ETA in Western Europe. Drawing on theoretical perspectives including primordialism, modernism, ethno-symbolism, and constructivism, the study explores the structural foundations of these movements, their recruitment dynamics, and the role of ethnic identity in sustaining group loyalty. The research further investigates the counterterrorism strategies employed by the UK and Spain, emphasizing the importance of both coercive measures during high-intensity conflict and political, economic, and social strategies during periods of reduced violence. A key conclusion is that long-term success in counterterrorism requires an integrated approach involving democratic political reforms, legal adjustments, and international cooperation. The study’s comparative framework and its integration of multiple theoretical and empirical tools represent a significant contribution to the academic literature on ethnic terrorism and conflict resolution.
Anahtar Kelimeler
Ethnic Nationalism IRA ETA Terrorism Ethnic Separatism Counterterrorism
Etik Beyan
Etik beyan formu eklenmiştir.
Kaynakça
- Aiartza, U. and Zabala, J. (2010). The Long Walk to a Democratic Scenario, Berlin: Berghof Conflict Center.
- Alonso, R. and Reinares, F. (2005). Terrorism, Human Rights and Law Enforcement in Spain, Terrorism and Politic Violence 17(1), 267. doi/abs/10.1080/09546550490520727
- Altun, M.F. and Karaman, Ö. (2012). Etnik Ayrılıkçı Terörle Mücadele Politikaları Kapsamında Türkiye ve İspanya Analizi. Başıbüyük, Ö, Sözer, M.A. and Altun, N. (ed.), Ankara: Terörle Mücadelede Makro ve Mikro Perspektifler, Polis AkademisiYayınları.
- Anderson, W. (2007). The ETA: Spain’s Basque Terrorists, Rosen Publishing Group.
- Anderson, B. (2007). The Imagined Communities: Reflections of the Origins and of Nationalism. Verso
- Berghe, P. (1987). The Ethnic Phenomenon, Praeger Publishes.
- Brass, P. R. (1994). Ethnicity and Nationalism: Theory and Comparison. Sage Publication.
- Breuilly, J. (1993). Nationalism and The State. (2. Ed), Manchester University Press. British Broadcasting Cooperation (BBC). (2022), https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-63727562
- Caşın, M.H. (2008). Uluslararası Terörizm, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım.
- Central Intelligence Agency. (2015), https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp85s00316r000300110004-3
- Clark J. R. (1984). The Basque Insurgents: ETA :1952-1980, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press,
- Coakley, J. (2010). Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. Ethnic Conflict and Its Resolution: The Northern Ireland Model, Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group.
- Cohler, J.B. (1970). Rousseau and Nationalism, New York: Basic Books.
- Connor, W. (1994). Ethnonationalism: The Quest for Understanding, Princeton: Princeton University.
- Connor, W. (1967). Self Determination: The New Phase, World Politics, 20(1) 30-53. doi.org/10.1080/00905992.2017.1350945
- Coogan, T. P. (1995). The Troubles Ireland's Ordeal 1966-1995 and The Search for Peace, London: Hutchinson.
- Darby, J. (2016). Conflict in Northern Ireland: A Background Essay, Macmillan Press.
- Deutsch, K. W. (1961). “Social Mobilization and Political Development”, American Political Science Review, 55(3) 493-514.
- Douglass, W. A. ve Zulaika J. (1990) “On the Interpretation of Terrorist Violance: ETA and The Basque Political Process”, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 32(2) 243. doi.org/10.1017/S0010417500016479
- Demir, C.K. (2007). Sebeplerinden Mücadele Yöntemlerine Ayrılıkçı Terörizm, Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık.
- English, R. (2003). Armed Struggle. History of the IRA, London: MacMillan.
- Erkal, M. (2003). Etniklik ve Terör. Dergi Park Dergisi, 7(3) 43-53.
- Esman, J.M. (2004). An Introduction to Ethnic Conflict, Polity Press.
- Edwards, B. M. (2011). Contemporary Politics in the Middle East, Polity Press.
- Fraser, T.G. (2000). Ireland in Conflict: 1922-1998, London: Routledge.
- Gurr, T.R. (2003). Terrorism in Democracies: When It Occurs Why It Fails. Kegly, C. (ed.) The New Global Terrorism, New Jersey, Pearson.
- Gürses, E. (2007). Etnik Terör: Uluslararası Sistemin İşleyişi, Profil Yayıncılık.
- Hart, P. (2002). British Intelligence in Ireland (1920-1921), Cork, Ireland: Cork University Press.
- Heiderger, M. (1989). The Making of Basque Nation, Cambridge: University Press.
- Hennesey, R. (1997). Disappearing Capital: The Queer Material of Sexual Identity, Center for Interdisciplinary Gender Studies, Leeds.
- Hobsbawn, E. J. and Terrence, R. (1983), The Invention of Tradition, Cambridge University Press.
- Horowitz, L. D. (1985). Ethnic Groups in Conflict. University of California Press. Instituto Nacional de Estadística (2018). www.ine.es
- Jimenez, O.J. (2002). Policio, Terrorismo y cambiopoliticoen Espana 1976-1996, Valencia: Tirant Lo. Blanch.
- Mansfield, D.E. ve Synder, J. (2005). Electing to Fight. Why Emerging Democracies Go to War, MIT Press.
- McGarry, J. & O'leary, B. (1995). Five Fallacies: Northern Ireland and The Liabilities of Liberalism. Ethnic and Radical Studies, (18)4.
- Mckittrick, D. & McVea, d. (2002). Making Sense of the Troubles, New Amsterdam Books.
- Murphy, L. (2007). EU Membership and Independent Basque State, Pace International Law Review. (19(2), doi.org/10.58948/2331-3536.1070.
- Nişancı, Ş. (2016). Etnisite Kavramının İdeolojik Serüveni, Dergi Park Dergisi. (7)12. Office For National Statistics. (2021), www.ons.gov.uk,
- Özçağatay, L. (1998). Kuzey İrlanda ve IRA. Silahlı Mücadeleden Siyasal Çözüme. PapirüsYayınları.
- Özçer, A. (2006). Çoğul İspanya: Anayasal Sistemi ve Ayrılıkçı Terörle Mücadele Yöntemi, İmge Kitabevi.
- Özçer, A. (2018). Agur, ETA Artık Yok, Liberte Yayınları.
- Özkırımlı, U. (2000). Milliyetçilik Kuramları: Eleştirel Bir Bakış, Doğu BatıYayınları.
- Posen, B.R. (1993). The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflict, Global Politics and Strategy. (35)1 27-47. doi.org/10.1080/00396339308442672
- Rennan, E. (1994). Quest-ce Que'une Nation? John Hutchinson and Anthony D. Smith (ed.) Nationalism, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Rothchild, J. (1981). Ethnopolitics: A Conceptual Framework, Columbia University Press.
- Roskin, M. G. (2016). Countries and Concepts: Politics, Geography, Culture. Pearson.
- Roskin, M. G. (2020). Countries and Concepts: Politics, Geography, Culture. Pearson.
- Shils, E. (1957). Primordial, Personel, Sacred and Civil Ties, British Journal. Sociology.
- Smith, A. (1998) Nationalism and Modernism, Routledge, London.
- Sollars, W. (1986). Beyond Ethnicity Consent and Descent in American Culture, Newyork: Oxford University Press.
- Sullivan, J. (1988). ETA and Basque Nationalism, The Fight for Euskadi 1890-1986. New York: Routledge.
- Şahin, Y. (2013). Çatışma Kuramları ve KimlikTemelli Çatışmalar: Teorik Bir Giriş. Barış Araştırmaları ve Çatışma Çözümleri Dergisi, (1)1.
- Taşdemir, F. (2006). Uluslararası Terörizme Karşı Devletlerin Kuvvete Başvurma Yetkisi. Uluslararası Stratejik Araştırma Kurumu.
- Thomas, N. (2012). After Catalonia, Euskadi and the Spanish Constitution, London: Democratic Progress Institute.
- Toft, D. M. (2003). The Geography of Ethnic Violence: Identity, Interests and Indivisibility of Territory, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- Türk Dil Kurumu. (2018), www.tdk.gov.tr
- Zirakzadeh, C.E. (1991). Rebellious People: Basques, Protests and Politics. Reno: University of Nevada Press.
Öz
Bu makale, Batı Avrupa’da IRA ve ETA örnekleri üzerinden etnik ayrılıkçı terörizmin temel nedenleri ve sonuçlarını karşılaştırmalı bir analizle ele almaktadır. Primordializm, modernizm, etno-sembolizm ve yapısalcılık gibi kuramsal yaklaşımlardan yararlanılarak, bu hareketlerin yapısal temelleri, örgütlenme ve militan devşirme dinamikleri ile etnik kimliğin grup bağlılığını sürdürmedeki rolü incelenmektedir. Araştırma ayrıca, Birleşik Krallık ve İspanya’nın uyguladığı terörle mücadele stratejilerini inceleyerek, yüksek yoğunluklu çatışma dönemlerinde zorlayıcı önlemlerin, şiddetin azaldığı dönemlerde ise siyasi, ekonomik ve sosyal stratejilerin önemini vurgulamaktadır. Çalışmanın temel bulgularından biri, terörle mücadelede uzun vadeli başarının, demokratik siyasi reformlar, yasal düzenlemeler ve uluslararası iş birliğini içeren bütüncül bir yaklaşım gerektirdiğidir. Makalenin karşılaştırmalı çerçevesi ve çoklu kuramsal ve ampirik araçları bir arada kullanması, etnik terörizm ve çatışma çözümü literatürüne önemli bir akademik katkı sunmaktadır.
Anahtar Kelimeler
Etnik Milliyetçilik IRA ETA Etnik Ayrılıkçılık Terörizmle Mücadele
Kaynakça
- Aiartza, U. and Zabala, J. (2010). The Long Walk to a Democratic Scenario, Berlin: Berghof Conflict Center.
- Alonso, R. and Reinares, F. (2005). Terrorism, Human Rights and Law Enforcement in Spain, Terrorism and Politic Violence 17(1), 267. doi/abs/10.1080/09546550490520727
- Altun, M.F. and Karaman, Ö. (2012). Etnik Ayrılıkçı Terörle Mücadele Politikaları Kapsamında Türkiye ve İspanya Analizi. Başıbüyük, Ö, Sözer, M.A. and Altun, N. (ed.), Ankara: Terörle Mücadelede Makro ve Mikro Perspektifler, Polis AkademisiYayınları.
- Anderson, W. (2007). The ETA: Spain’s Basque Terrorists, Rosen Publishing Group.
- Anderson, B. (2007). The Imagined Communities: Reflections of the Origins and of Nationalism. Verso
- Berghe, P. (1987). The Ethnic Phenomenon, Praeger Publishes.
- Brass, P. R. (1994). Ethnicity and Nationalism: Theory and Comparison. Sage Publication.
- Breuilly, J. (1993). Nationalism and The State. (2. Ed), Manchester University Press. British Broadcasting Cooperation (BBC). (2022), https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-63727562
- Caşın, M.H. (2008). Uluslararası Terörizm, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım.
- Central Intelligence Agency. (2015), https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp85s00316r000300110004-3
- Clark J. R. (1984). The Basque Insurgents: ETA :1952-1980, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press,
- Coakley, J. (2010). Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. Ethnic Conflict and Its Resolution: The Northern Ireland Model, Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group.
- Cohler, J.B. (1970). Rousseau and Nationalism, New York: Basic Books.
- Connor, W. (1994). Ethnonationalism: The Quest for Understanding, Princeton: Princeton University.
- Connor, W. (1967). Self Determination: The New Phase, World Politics, 20(1) 30-53. doi.org/10.1080/00905992.2017.1350945
- Coogan, T. P. (1995). The Troubles Ireland's Ordeal 1966-1995 and The Search for Peace, London: Hutchinson.
- Darby, J. (2016). Conflict in Northern Ireland: A Background Essay, Macmillan Press.
- Deutsch, K. W. (1961). “Social Mobilization and Political Development”, American Political Science Review, 55(3) 493-514.
- Douglass, W. A. ve Zulaika J. (1990) “On the Interpretation of Terrorist Violance: ETA and The Basque Political Process”, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 32(2) 243. doi.org/10.1017/S0010417500016479
- Demir, C.K. (2007). Sebeplerinden Mücadele Yöntemlerine Ayrılıkçı Terörizm, Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık.
- English, R. (2003). Armed Struggle. History of the IRA, London: MacMillan.
- Erkal, M. (2003). Etniklik ve Terör. Dergi Park Dergisi, 7(3) 43-53.
- Esman, J.M. (2004). An Introduction to Ethnic Conflict, Polity Press.
- Edwards, B. M. (2011). Contemporary Politics in the Middle East, Polity Press.
- Fraser, T.G. (2000). Ireland in Conflict: 1922-1998, London: Routledge.
- Gurr, T.R. (2003). Terrorism in Democracies: When It Occurs Why It Fails. Kegly, C. (ed.) The New Global Terrorism, New Jersey, Pearson.
- Gürses, E. (2007). Etnik Terör: Uluslararası Sistemin İşleyişi, Profil Yayıncılık.
- Hart, P. (2002). British Intelligence in Ireland (1920-1921), Cork, Ireland: Cork University Press.
- Heiderger, M. (1989). The Making of Basque Nation, Cambridge: University Press.
- Hennesey, R. (1997). Disappearing Capital: The Queer Material of Sexual Identity, Center for Interdisciplinary Gender Studies, Leeds.
- Hobsbawn, E. J. and Terrence, R. (1983), The Invention of Tradition, Cambridge University Press.
- Horowitz, L. D. (1985). Ethnic Groups in Conflict. University of California Press. Instituto Nacional de Estadística (2018). www.ine.es
- Jimenez, O.J. (2002). Policio, Terrorismo y cambiopoliticoen Espana 1976-1996, Valencia: Tirant Lo. Blanch.
- Mansfield, D.E. ve Synder, J. (2005). Electing to Fight. Why Emerging Democracies Go to War, MIT Press.
- McGarry, J. & O'leary, B. (1995). Five Fallacies: Northern Ireland and The Liabilities of Liberalism. Ethnic and Radical Studies, (18)4.
- Mckittrick, D. & McVea, d. (2002). Making Sense of the Troubles, New Amsterdam Books.
- Murphy, L. (2007). EU Membership and Independent Basque State, Pace International Law Review. (19(2), doi.org/10.58948/2331-3536.1070.
- Nişancı, Ş. (2016). Etnisite Kavramının İdeolojik Serüveni, Dergi Park Dergisi. (7)12. Office For National Statistics. (2021), www.ons.gov.uk,
- Özçağatay, L. (1998). Kuzey İrlanda ve IRA. Silahlı Mücadeleden Siyasal Çözüme. PapirüsYayınları.
- Özçer, A. (2006). Çoğul İspanya: Anayasal Sistemi ve Ayrılıkçı Terörle Mücadele Yöntemi, İmge Kitabevi.
- Özçer, A. (2018). Agur, ETA Artık Yok, Liberte Yayınları.
- Özkırımlı, U. (2000). Milliyetçilik Kuramları: Eleştirel Bir Bakış, Doğu BatıYayınları.
- Posen, B.R. (1993). The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflict, Global Politics and Strategy. (35)1 27-47. doi.org/10.1080/00396339308442672
- Rennan, E. (1994). Quest-ce Que'une Nation? John Hutchinson and Anthony D. Smith (ed.) Nationalism, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Rothchild, J. (1981). Ethnopolitics: A Conceptual Framework, Columbia University Press.
- Roskin, M. G. (2016). Countries and Concepts: Politics, Geography, Culture. Pearson.
- Roskin, M. G. (2020). Countries and Concepts: Politics, Geography, Culture. Pearson.
- Shils, E. (1957). Primordial, Personel, Sacred and Civil Ties, British Journal. Sociology.
- Smith, A. (1998) Nationalism and Modernism, Routledge, London.
- Sollars, W. (1986). Beyond Ethnicity Consent and Descent in American Culture, Newyork: Oxford University Press.
- Sullivan, J. (1988). ETA and Basque Nationalism, The Fight for Euskadi 1890-1986. New York: Routledge.
- Şahin, Y. (2013). Çatışma Kuramları ve KimlikTemelli Çatışmalar: Teorik Bir Giriş. Barış Araştırmaları ve Çatışma Çözümleri Dergisi, (1)1.
- Taşdemir, F. (2006). Uluslararası Terörizme Karşı Devletlerin Kuvvete Başvurma Yetkisi. Uluslararası Stratejik Araştırma Kurumu.
- Thomas, N. (2012). After Catalonia, Euskadi and the Spanish Constitution, London: Democratic Progress Institute.
- Toft, D. M. (2003). The Geography of Ethnic Violence: Identity, Interests and Indivisibility of Territory, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- Türk Dil Kurumu. (2018), www.tdk.gov.tr
- Zirakzadeh, C.E. (1991). Rebellious People: Basques, Protests and Politics. Reno: University of Nevada Press.
Ayrıntılar
| Birincil Dil | İngilizce |
|---|---|
| Konular | Uluslararası İlişkilerde Terörizm |
| Bölüm | Makaleler |
| Yazarlar | |
| Erken Görünüm Tarihi | 30 Mayıs 2025 |
| Yayımlanma Tarihi | 31 Mayıs 2025 |
| Gönderilme Tarihi | 13 Şubat 2025 |
| Kabul Tarihi | 6 Mayıs 2025 |
| Yayımlandığı Sayı | Yıl 2025 Cilt: 9 Sayı: 1 |
