Araştırma Makalesi
BibTex RIS Kaynak Göster

Theory of Mind and Executive Function: Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Typically Developing Children

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 12 Sayı: 2, 428 - 443

Merih Toker , Funda Acarlar

Öz

Biological and environmental factors influencing autism spectrum disorder (ASD) symptoms are believed to be significantly shaped by cognitive processes. Executive functions (EF) encompass interactive cognitive processes supported by the frontal lobe, explicitly regulating complex, novel, and goal-directed behaviors. Individuals with ASD experience challenges across various executive functions (EF) aspects, including planning, inhibition, cognitive flexibility, productivity, and working memory (Hill, 2004). Studies indicate that challenges faced by individuals with ASD in understanding their own and others' mental states may be connected to executive function (EF) deficits (Pennington et al., 1997; Russell, 1997). Impairments in both theory of mind and EF are frequently linked to the autism spectrum phenotype and are thought to significantly contribute to the emergence of the disorder. This study investigated the relationship between theory of mind and executive function skills in children with autism and their peers with typical development. The study included 40 children with autism who were diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder as a result of medical evaluations and who were receiving education in special education and rehabilitation centers. 40 children with autism aged 4-6 years with non-verbal intelligence level and 40 children with typical development in the same age group were included in the study. This study was designed with a causal comparison model. The Raven Color Progressive Matrices test, a non-verbal intelligence test, was used in sample selection. The appearance-reality, displacement procedure, and unexpected content, which are false belief procedures, among the ToM assessment procedures, were used as a data collection tool. In addition, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibition tasks were used in executive function assessments. Data were analyzed in the SPSS 23 program, and descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation analysis were used.
The study's results showed that inhibition and cognitive flexibility components of executive function were associated with total ToM scores in children with autism. In contrast, all aspects of executive function were found to correlate with ToM scores in typically developing children. When age groups are analyzed, in the autistic 4-year-old group, the total ToM score was associated with the inhibition component, and in the 6-year-old group, ToM was associated with the working memory component. In typically developing children, the total ToM score was linked to inhibition at age 4, to both inhibition and working memory at age 5, and to cognitive flexibility and working memory at age 6. These findings indicate that executive function and Theory of Mind emerge in early childhood and remain interconnected as children grow older. Additionally, the study discussed the implications of the relationship between social-cognitive impairments and ASD.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Autism Spectrum Disorder Theory of Mind False belief Executive Functions Working Memory

Etik Beyan

-

Destekleyen Kurum

-

Proje Numarası

-

Teşekkür

-

Kaynakça

  • Akoğlu, G., & Acarlar, F. (2014b). Türkçe anlamsız sözcük tekrarının 3-9 yaş grubu çocuklarda kullanımının incelenmesi. Eğitim ve Bilim, 39(173), 13–24.
  • Aksu-Koç, A., Küntay, A. C., & Naigles, L. R. (2009). Early verbal expressions of false belief: A cross-linguistic perspective. Language Acquisition, 16(4), 237–248. doi:10.1080/10489220903390543
  • Baron-Cohen, S. (1988). Social and pragmatic deficits in autism: Cognitive or affective? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 18(3), 379–402. doi:10.1007/BF02212194
  • Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a “theory of mind”? Cognition, 21(1), 37–46. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8
  • Benson, J. B., Sabbagh, M. A., Carlson, S. M., & Zelazo, P. D. (2020). Executive function and theory of mind in early childhood: A developmental neurocognitive perspective. Developmental Review, 58, 100926. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2020.100926
  • Capps, L., Kehres, J., & Sigman, M. (1998). Conversational abilities among children with autism and children with developmental delays matched on language ability. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 2(4), 325–347. doi:10.1177/1362361398024002
  • Carlson, S. M., & Moses, L. J. (2001). Individual differences in inhibitory control and children’s theory of mind. Child Development, 72(4), 1032–1053. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00333
  • Carlson, S. M., Claxton, L. J., & Moses, L. J. (2015). The relation between executive function and theory of mind is more than skin deep. Journal of Cognition and Development, 16(1), 186–197. doi:10.1080/15248372.2013.824883
  • Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Claxton, L. J. (2004). Individual differences in executive functioning and theory of mind: An investigation of inhibitory control and planning ability. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 87(4), 299–319. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2004.01.002
  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  • Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315456539
  • Devine, R. T., & Hughes, C. (2014). Relations between false belief understanding and executive function in early childhood: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 85(5), 1777–1794. doi:10.1111/cdev.12233
  • Devine, R. T., White, N., Ensor, R., & Hughes, C. (2019). Theory of mind in middle childhood: Longitudinal associations with executive function and social competence. Child Development, 90(2), e100–e116. doi:10.1111/cdev.13079
  • Diken, İ. H., Ardıç, A., & Diken, Ö. (2011). Gilliam Otistik Bozukluk Derecelendirme Ölçeği-2 Türkçe versiyonu GOBDÖ-2-TV. Ankara: Maya Akademi Yayınevi.
  • Fisher, N., & Happé, F. (2005). A training study of the theory of mind and executive function in children with autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(6), 757–771. doi:10.1007/s10803-005-0022-9
  • Flavell, J. H., Flavell, E. R., & Green, F. L. (1983). Development of the appearance-reality distinction. Cognitive Psychology, 15(1), 95–120. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(83)90005-1
  • Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2012). How to design and evaluate research in education (8th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
  • Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (1999). Interacting minds: A biological basis. Science, 286(5445), 1692–1695. doi:10.1126/science.286.5445.1692
  • Frolli, A., Esposito, C., Conson, M., & Ricci, M. C. (2022). Executive functioning and theory of mind in preschoolers with autism spectrum disorder: A developmental analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 842302. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.842302
  • Gerstadt, C. L., Hong, Y. J., & Diamond, A. (1994). The relationship between cognition and action: Performance of children 3.5–7 years old on a Stroop-like day-night test. Cognition, 53(2), 129–153. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(94)90068-X
  • Gonzalez-Gadea, M. L., Chennu, S., Bekinschtein, T., Roca, M., Sigman, M., & Sedeño, L. (2021). A dimensional approach to executive function and theory of mind in autism: Evidence from a meta-analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 129, 81–97. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.06.008
  • Happé, F. (1994). Adaptive behavior and theory of mind. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 3(4), 176–186. doi:10.1007/BF02262777
  • Harris, P. L., Brown, E., Marriott, C., Whittall, S., & Harmer, S. (1991). Monsters, ghosts and witches: Testing the limits of the fantasy-reality distinction in young children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9(1), 105–124. doi:10.1111/j.2044-835X.1991.tb00867.x
  • Hill, E. L. (2004). Evaluating the theory of executive dysfunction in autism. Developmental Review, 24(2), 189–233. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2004.01.001
  • Hogrefe, G.-J., Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1986). Ignorance versus false belief: A developmental lag in attribution of epistemic states. Child Development, 57(3), 567–582. doi:10.2307/1130337
  • Jones, C. R. G., Simonoff, E., Baird, G., Pickles, A., Marsden, A. J. S., Tregay, J., ... Charman, T. (2017). The association between theory of mind, executive function, and the symptoms of autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research, 11(1), 95–109. doi:10.1002/aur.1873
  • Joseph, R. M., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2004). The relationship of theory of mind and executive functions to symptom type and severity in children with autism. Development and Psychopathology, 16(1), 137–155. doi:10.1017/S095457940404444X
  • Keçeli Kaysılı, B. (2012). Otizm spektrum bozukluğu olan ve normal gelişen çocuklarda sözdiziminin ve sözcük dağarcığının zihin kuramı ile ilişkisinin incelenmesi (Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi). Ankara Üniversitesi, Ankara.
  • Keçeli Kaysılı, B. (2013). Zihin kuramı: Otizm spektrum bozukluğu olan ve normal gelişen çocukların performanslarının karşılaştırılması. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 14(1), 83–103.
  • Klin, A., Schultz, R., & Cohen, D. J. (2000). Theory of mind in action: Developmental perspectives on social neuroscience. In S. Baron-Cohen, H. Tager-Flusberg, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Understanding other minds: Perspectives from developmental cognitive neuroscience (2nd ed., pp. 357–388). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
  • Klin, A., Schultz, R., & Cohen, D. J. (2000). Theory of mind in action: Developmental perspectives on social neuroscience. In S. Baron-Cohen, H. Tager-Flusberg, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Understanding other minds: Perspectives from developmental cognitive neuroscience (2nd ed., pp. 357–388). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
  • Küntay, A., & Nakamura, M. (2020). Cross-cultural perspectives on theory of mind development. In M. Shatz (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of the development of imagination (pp. 306–321). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195395761.013.21
  • Lehto, J. E., Juujärvi, P., Kooistra, L., & Pulkkinen, L. (2003). Dimensions of executive functioning: Evidence from children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21(1), 59–80. doi:10.1348/026151003321164627
  • Livingston, L. A., Carr, B., & Shah, P. (2019). Recent advances and new directions in measuring theory of mind in autistic adults. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(4), 1738–1744. doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3823-2
  • Luria, A. R. (1973). The working brain: An introduction to neuropsychology. New York, NY: Basic Books.
  • McMillan, J. H., & Schumacher, S. (2014). Research in education: Evidence-based inquiry (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
  • Miller, S. A. (2009). Children’s understanding of second-order mental states. Psychological Bulletin, 135(5), 749–773. doi:10.1037/a0016854
  • Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex frontal lobe tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
  • Moriguchi, Y., Shinohara, I., & Itakura, S. (2020). Neural correlates of inhibitory control and theory of mind: A developmental perspective. Child Development Perspectives, 14(4), 223–229. doi:10.1111/cdep.12388
  • Ozonoff, S., Pennington, B. F., & Rogers, S. J. (1991). Executive function deficits in high-functioning autistic individuals: Relationship to theory of mind. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32(7), 1081–1105. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1991.tb00351.x
  • Ozonoff, S., Pennington, B. F., & Rogers, S. J. (2004). Executive function deficits in high-functioning autistic individuals: Relationship to theory of mind. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32(7), 1081–1105.
  • Pellicano, E. (2007). Links between theory of mind and executive function in young children with autism: Clues to developmental primacy. Developmental Psychology, 43(4), 974–990. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.4.974
  • Pellicano, E. (2010). Individual differences in executive function and central coherence predict developmental changes in theory of mind in autism. Developmental Psychology, 46(2), 530–544. doi:10.1037/a0018287
  • Perner, J. (1991). Understanding the representational mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
  • Perner, J. (1998). The meta-intentional nature of executive functions and theory of mind. In P. Carruthers & J. Boucher (Eds.), Language and thought: Interdisciplinary themes (pp. 270–283). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
  • Raven, J., Raven, J. C., & Court, H. (1998). Coloured progressive matrices. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment. Roebers, C. M. (2022). The development of metacognitive monitoring and control in early childhood: Emerging questions, challenges, and solutions. Journal of Cognition and Development, 23(1), 1–23. doi:10.1080/15248372.2021.1993069
  • Russell, J. (1996). Agency: Its role in mental development. Hove, England: Erlbaum.
  • Russell, J. (1997). How executive disorders can bring about an adequate theory of mind. In J. Russell (Ed.), Autism as an executive disorder (pp. 256–304). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
  • Saxe, R., Carey, S., & Kanwisher, N. (2004). Understanding other minds: Linking developmental psychology and functional neuroimaging. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 87–124. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142044
  • Schwenck, C., Mergenthaler, J., Keller, K., Zech, J., Salehi, S., Taurines, R., ... Freitag, C. M. (2012). Empathy in children with autism and conduct disorder: Group-specific profiles and developmental aspects. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53(6), 651–659. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02499.x
  • Shahaeian, A., Haynes, M., & Frick, P. J. (2023). The role of language in the association between theory of mind and executive functioning in early childhood: New longitudinal evidence. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 62(1), 251–258. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.12.004
  • Slaughter, V., & Peterson, C. C. (2011). How conversational input shapes theory of mind development in infancy and early childhood. Child Development Perspectives, 5(1), 25–29. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2010.00155.x
  • Tager-Flusberg, H. (2007). Evaluating the theory-of-mind hypothesis of autism. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(6), 311–315. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00527.x
  • Tager-Flusberg, H., & Joseph, R. M. (2005). Theory of mind, language, and executive functions in autism: A longitudinal perspective. In W. Schneider, R. Schumann-Hengsteler, & B. Sodian (Eds.), Young children's cognitive development: Interrelationships among executive functioning, working memory, verbal ability, and theory of mind (pp. 217–232). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Tekin-İftar, E., & Kırcaali-İftar, G. (2006). Özel eğitimde yanlışsız öğretim yöntemleri. Ankara, Turkey: Nobel Yayıncılık.
  • Wellman, H. M. (1990). The child's theory of mind. Cambridge, MA: Bradford/MIT Press.
  • Wellman, H. M., Cross, D., & Watson, J. (2001). Meta-analysis of theory-of-mind development: The truth about false belief. Child Development, 72(3), 655–684. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00304
  • Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13(1), 103–128. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(83)90004-5
  • Yağmurlu, N., Sanson, A., & Köymen, B. (2005). Ebeveynlerin ve çocuk mizacının olumlu sosyal davranış gelişimine etkileri: Zihin kuramının belirleyici rolü. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 20(55), 1–20.
  • Zelazo, P. (2006). The Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS): A method of assessing executive function in children. Nature Protocols, 1(1), 297–301. doi:10.1038/nprot.2006.46
  • Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2012). Executive function in typical and atypical development. In P. D. Zelazo (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of developmental psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 445–503). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Zelazo, P. D., Jacques, S., Burack, J. A., & Frye, D. (2002). The relation between theory of mind and rule use: Evidence from persons with autism-spectrum disorders. Infant and Child Development, 11(2), 171–195. doi:10.1002/icd.304
  • Zhou, P., Wang, S., & Sun, Z. (2022). Executive function predicts theory of mind development in preschoolers: Evidence from a 2-year longitudinal study. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 872241. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022. 872241

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 12 Sayı: 2, 428 - 443

Merih Toker , Funda Acarlar

Öz

Proje Numarası

-

Kaynakça

  • Akoğlu, G., & Acarlar, F. (2014b). Türkçe anlamsız sözcük tekrarının 3-9 yaş grubu çocuklarda kullanımının incelenmesi. Eğitim ve Bilim, 39(173), 13–24.
  • Aksu-Koç, A., Küntay, A. C., & Naigles, L. R. (2009). Early verbal expressions of false belief: A cross-linguistic perspective. Language Acquisition, 16(4), 237–248. doi:10.1080/10489220903390543
  • Baron-Cohen, S. (1988). Social and pragmatic deficits in autism: Cognitive or affective? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 18(3), 379–402. doi:10.1007/BF02212194
  • Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a “theory of mind”? Cognition, 21(1), 37–46. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8
  • Benson, J. B., Sabbagh, M. A., Carlson, S. M., & Zelazo, P. D. (2020). Executive function and theory of mind in early childhood: A developmental neurocognitive perspective. Developmental Review, 58, 100926. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2020.100926
  • Capps, L., Kehres, J., & Sigman, M. (1998). Conversational abilities among children with autism and children with developmental delays matched on language ability. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 2(4), 325–347. doi:10.1177/1362361398024002
  • Carlson, S. M., & Moses, L. J. (2001). Individual differences in inhibitory control and children’s theory of mind. Child Development, 72(4), 1032–1053. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00333
  • Carlson, S. M., Claxton, L. J., & Moses, L. J. (2015). The relation between executive function and theory of mind is more than skin deep. Journal of Cognition and Development, 16(1), 186–197. doi:10.1080/15248372.2013.824883
  • Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Claxton, L. J. (2004). Individual differences in executive functioning and theory of mind: An investigation of inhibitory control and planning ability. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 87(4), 299–319. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2004.01.002
  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  • Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315456539
  • Devine, R. T., & Hughes, C. (2014). Relations between false belief understanding and executive function in early childhood: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 85(5), 1777–1794. doi:10.1111/cdev.12233
  • Devine, R. T., White, N., Ensor, R., & Hughes, C. (2019). Theory of mind in middle childhood: Longitudinal associations with executive function and social competence. Child Development, 90(2), e100–e116. doi:10.1111/cdev.13079
  • Diken, İ. H., Ardıç, A., & Diken, Ö. (2011). Gilliam Otistik Bozukluk Derecelendirme Ölçeği-2 Türkçe versiyonu GOBDÖ-2-TV. Ankara: Maya Akademi Yayınevi.
  • Fisher, N., & Happé, F. (2005). A training study of the theory of mind and executive function in children with autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(6), 757–771. doi:10.1007/s10803-005-0022-9
  • Flavell, J. H., Flavell, E. R., & Green, F. L. (1983). Development of the appearance-reality distinction. Cognitive Psychology, 15(1), 95–120. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(83)90005-1
  • Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2012). How to design and evaluate research in education (8th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
  • Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (1999). Interacting minds: A biological basis. Science, 286(5445), 1692–1695. doi:10.1126/science.286.5445.1692
  • Frolli, A., Esposito, C., Conson, M., & Ricci, M. C. (2022). Executive functioning and theory of mind in preschoolers with autism spectrum disorder: A developmental analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 842302. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.842302
  • Gerstadt, C. L., Hong, Y. J., & Diamond, A. (1994). The relationship between cognition and action: Performance of children 3.5–7 years old on a Stroop-like day-night test. Cognition, 53(2), 129–153. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(94)90068-X
  • Gonzalez-Gadea, M. L., Chennu, S., Bekinschtein, T., Roca, M., Sigman, M., & Sedeño, L. (2021). A dimensional approach to executive function and theory of mind in autism: Evidence from a meta-analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 129, 81–97. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.06.008
  • Happé, F. (1994). Adaptive behavior and theory of mind. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 3(4), 176–186. doi:10.1007/BF02262777
  • Harris, P. L., Brown, E., Marriott, C., Whittall, S., & Harmer, S. (1991). Monsters, ghosts and witches: Testing the limits of the fantasy-reality distinction in young children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9(1), 105–124. doi:10.1111/j.2044-835X.1991.tb00867.x
  • Hill, E. L. (2004). Evaluating the theory of executive dysfunction in autism. Developmental Review, 24(2), 189–233. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2004.01.001
  • Hogrefe, G.-J., Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1986). Ignorance versus false belief: A developmental lag in attribution of epistemic states. Child Development, 57(3), 567–582. doi:10.2307/1130337
  • Jones, C. R. G., Simonoff, E., Baird, G., Pickles, A., Marsden, A. J. S., Tregay, J., ... Charman, T. (2017). The association between theory of mind, executive function, and the symptoms of autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research, 11(1), 95–109. doi:10.1002/aur.1873
  • Joseph, R. M., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2004). The relationship of theory of mind and executive functions to symptom type and severity in children with autism. Development and Psychopathology, 16(1), 137–155. doi:10.1017/S095457940404444X
  • Keçeli Kaysılı, B. (2012). Otizm spektrum bozukluğu olan ve normal gelişen çocuklarda sözdiziminin ve sözcük dağarcığının zihin kuramı ile ilişkisinin incelenmesi (Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi). Ankara Üniversitesi, Ankara.
  • Keçeli Kaysılı, B. (2013). Zihin kuramı: Otizm spektrum bozukluğu olan ve normal gelişen çocukların performanslarının karşılaştırılması. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 14(1), 83–103.
  • Klin, A., Schultz, R., & Cohen, D. J. (2000). Theory of mind in action: Developmental perspectives on social neuroscience. In S. Baron-Cohen, H. Tager-Flusberg, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Understanding other minds: Perspectives from developmental cognitive neuroscience (2nd ed., pp. 357–388). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
  • Klin, A., Schultz, R., & Cohen, D. J. (2000). Theory of mind in action: Developmental perspectives on social neuroscience. In S. Baron-Cohen, H. Tager-Flusberg, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Understanding other minds: Perspectives from developmental cognitive neuroscience (2nd ed., pp. 357–388). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
  • Küntay, A., & Nakamura, M. (2020). Cross-cultural perspectives on theory of mind development. In M. Shatz (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of the development of imagination (pp. 306–321). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195395761.013.21
  • Lehto, J. E., Juujärvi, P., Kooistra, L., & Pulkkinen, L. (2003). Dimensions of executive functioning: Evidence from children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21(1), 59–80. doi:10.1348/026151003321164627
  • Livingston, L. A., Carr, B., & Shah, P. (2019). Recent advances and new directions in measuring theory of mind in autistic adults. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(4), 1738–1744. doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3823-2
  • Luria, A. R. (1973). The working brain: An introduction to neuropsychology. New York, NY: Basic Books.
  • McMillan, J. H., & Schumacher, S. (2014). Research in education: Evidence-based inquiry (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
  • Miller, S. A. (2009). Children’s understanding of second-order mental states. Psychological Bulletin, 135(5), 749–773. doi:10.1037/a0016854
  • Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex frontal lobe tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
  • Moriguchi, Y., Shinohara, I., & Itakura, S. (2020). Neural correlates of inhibitory control and theory of mind: A developmental perspective. Child Development Perspectives, 14(4), 223–229. doi:10.1111/cdep.12388
  • Ozonoff, S., Pennington, B. F., & Rogers, S. J. (1991). Executive function deficits in high-functioning autistic individuals: Relationship to theory of mind. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32(7), 1081–1105. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1991.tb00351.x
  • Ozonoff, S., Pennington, B. F., & Rogers, S. J. (2004). Executive function deficits in high-functioning autistic individuals: Relationship to theory of mind. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32(7), 1081–1105.
  • Pellicano, E. (2007). Links between theory of mind and executive function in young children with autism: Clues to developmental primacy. Developmental Psychology, 43(4), 974–990. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.4.974
  • Pellicano, E. (2010). Individual differences in executive function and central coherence predict developmental changes in theory of mind in autism. Developmental Psychology, 46(2), 530–544. doi:10.1037/a0018287
  • Perner, J. (1991). Understanding the representational mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
  • Perner, J. (1998). The meta-intentional nature of executive functions and theory of mind. In P. Carruthers & J. Boucher (Eds.), Language and thought: Interdisciplinary themes (pp. 270–283). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
  • Raven, J., Raven, J. C., & Court, H. (1998). Coloured progressive matrices. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment. Roebers, C. M. (2022). The development of metacognitive monitoring and control in early childhood: Emerging questions, challenges, and solutions. Journal of Cognition and Development, 23(1), 1–23. doi:10.1080/15248372.2021.1993069
  • Russell, J. (1996). Agency: Its role in mental development. Hove, England: Erlbaum.
  • Russell, J. (1997). How executive disorders can bring about an adequate theory of mind. In J. Russell (Ed.), Autism as an executive disorder (pp. 256–304). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
  • Saxe, R., Carey, S., & Kanwisher, N. (2004). Understanding other minds: Linking developmental psychology and functional neuroimaging. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 87–124. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142044
  • Schwenck, C., Mergenthaler, J., Keller, K., Zech, J., Salehi, S., Taurines, R., ... Freitag, C. M. (2012). Empathy in children with autism and conduct disorder: Group-specific profiles and developmental aspects. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53(6), 651–659. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02499.x
  • Shahaeian, A., Haynes, M., & Frick, P. J. (2023). The role of language in the association between theory of mind and executive functioning in early childhood: New longitudinal evidence. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 62(1), 251–258. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.12.004
  • Slaughter, V., & Peterson, C. C. (2011). How conversational input shapes theory of mind development in infancy and early childhood. Child Development Perspectives, 5(1), 25–29. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2010.00155.x
  • Tager-Flusberg, H. (2007). Evaluating the theory-of-mind hypothesis of autism. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(6), 311–315. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00527.x
  • Tager-Flusberg, H., & Joseph, R. M. (2005). Theory of mind, language, and executive functions in autism: A longitudinal perspective. In W. Schneider, R. Schumann-Hengsteler, & B. Sodian (Eds.), Young children's cognitive development: Interrelationships among executive functioning, working memory, verbal ability, and theory of mind (pp. 217–232). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Tekin-İftar, E., & Kırcaali-İftar, G. (2006). Özel eğitimde yanlışsız öğretim yöntemleri. Ankara, Turkey: Nobel Yayıncılık.
  • Wellman, H. M. (1990). The child's theory of mind. Cambridge, MA: Bradford/MIT Press.
  • Wellman, H. M., Cross, D., & Watson, J. (2001). Meta-analysis of theory-of-mind development: The truth about false belief. Child Development, 72(3), 655–684. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00304
  • Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13(1), 103–128. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(83)90004-5
  • Yağmurlu, N., Sanson, A., & Köymen, B. (2005). Ebeveynlerin ve çocuk mizacının olumlu sosyal davranış gelişimine etkileri: Zihin kuramının belirleyici rolü. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 20(55), 1–20.
  • Zelazo, P. (2006). The Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS): A method of assessing executive function in children. Nature Protocols, 1(1), 297–301. doi:10.1038/nprot.2006.46
  • Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2012). Executive function in typical and atypical development. In P. D. Zelazo (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of developmental psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 445–503). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Zelazo, P. D., Jacques, S., Burack, J. A., & Frye, D. (2002). The relation between theory of mind and rule use: Evidence from persons with autism-spectrum disorders. Infant and Child Development, 11(2), 171–195. doi:10.1002/icd.304
  • Zhou, P., Wang, S., & Sun, Z. (2022). Executive function predicts theory of mind development in preschoolers: Evidence from a 2-year longitudinal study. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 872241. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022. 872241
Toplam 63 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Otizm ve Spekrum Bozukluğu Eğitimi
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Merih Toker 0000-0002-2794-308X

Funda Acarlar 0000-0003-3796-4279

Proje Numarası -
Erken Görünüm Tarihi 15 Ağustos 2025
Yayımlanma Tarihi
Gönderilme Tarihi 31 Aralık 2024
Kabul Tarihi 3 Ağustos 2025
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2025 Cilt: 12 Sayı: 2

Kaynak Göster

APA Toker, M., & Acarlar, F. (2025). Theory of Mind and Executive Function: Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Typically Developing Children. E-Kafkas Journal of Educational Research, 12(2), 428-443.
 Kapak Resmi İndir

19190       23681     19386        19387